Critical Mass Mind -
Collective Consciousness Terms for 2012 Planet Information ET Work -
12-21-12 Ascension Age Begins!
If we now know that 99.99% of our reality is an illusion,
how do we foresee our future? The Alien ET UFO Community is now a part of the
future expansion in our new space-time anomaly we call life on planet earth.
The fact that we are all here using our own individual human consciousness
makes us something more than our own most intelligent beings of our humanoid
sentient intelligent being species can figure out.
Therefore, we have learned that our ancient alien ancestors
has had the forethought to give us a marker in time for a new age we call
Ascension Age to begin on December 21, 2012 at 11:11. We are welcoming the
changes and are beginning to share more information than we ever thought
possible on the "Internet Online in Cyberspace."
The linkage to the "Akashic Field of Everything"
is now possible. This is a time when the veil will be drawn for us to see into
the middle of our own Milky Way Galaxy of which our creative energies flow from
the original creators of the Alpha and Omega. This means that we are now able
to tune into that which we are as essence as the energy of our own ebb and flow
rhythm.
In linguistics, rhythm or isochrony is one of the three
aspects of prosody, along with stress and intonation. Languages can be
categorized according to whether they are syllable-timed or stress-timed.
Speakers of syllable-timed languages such as Spanish and Cantonese put roughly
equal time on each syllable; in contrast, speakers of stressed-timed languages
such as English and Mandarin Chinese put roughly equal time lags between
stressed syllables, with the timing of the unstressed syllables in between them
being adjusted to accommodate the stress timing.
Narmour describes three categories of prosodic rules which
create rhythmic successions which are additive (same duration repeated),
cumulative (short-long), or countercumulative (long-short). Cumulation is
associated with closure or relaxation, countercumulation with openness or
tension, while additive rhythms are open-ended and repetitive. Richard
Middleton points out this method cannot account for syncopation and suggests
the concept of transformation.
ACE FOLKLIFE – ASCENSION AGE –2012
ASCENSION CENTER SPIRITUAL SCIENCE ENLIGHTENMENT & NEW
AGE BOOKS
Changes accepted in the new way of traditional culture
topics and categories.
Links should be related to the New Age and placed in
appropriate Ascension Age categories for updates of the 2012 culture changes...
Suitable links include:
Ancient Civilization & Mythology
Ascension
Spirit Guides
Paranormal
Events, Groups & Publications
Magick – Occult, Wicca, Witchcraft, etc.
New Age Music, Art & Crafts
Prediction – Astrology, Biorhythms, Tarot, Clairvoyance,
etc.
Psychics-Mediums-Channels
Mysticism
Spiritualism
Travel & Recreation – Retreats, Sacred Places, Tours,
Spiritual Journeys, etc.
New Age Communities, Blogs & Internet Services
Gifts, Paraphernalia, New Age shopping
UFOs, Extra-Terrestrials, Conspiracies
Holistic Health
Earth Energies, Environmentalism, Inner Earth, etc.
Yoga, Empowerment, Meditation, Tai Chi, etc.
Spiritual/New Age Philosophy, Wisdom and Teachings.
Sustainability – Terra Forming
Artificial Intelligence
Cosmos – Space
Quantum Physics
Universities, Libraries, etc.
Science
World Religions, Theosophy, Philosophy, Psychology
Medical Doctors and Practices
Ascension Age – Social Entrepreneurs & Social Networkers
For Example:
Planet Informaiton ET Work PAGES
A to Z TRADER – Internet Marketing 2012 & Beyond – TJ
Morris & Friends – Timely Manor Books & Weekly Trader Magazine
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FEATURE
ODNI Accomplished by 2025
By TJ Morris
Obama faces heady challenges, and they’re growing (AP) AP –
President-elect Barack Obama, relatively young and inexperienced, is facing a
rapidly growing list of...
Read more »
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ASCENSION AGE – GOLDEN AGE OF COSMOLOGY
By: Theresa J. Morris
ISBN# 978-1-105-18002-6
Logo of TJ Morris and Ace Folklife Brand Chosen for
inclusion in our Libraries
Recommended and endorsed by the TJ Morris.org, and Ascension
Center.org for art, culture, education.
Historical Fiction with locales noted on the North American
Continent including Canada, and USA.
Ascension Age of Awareness.
For more information, read our Internet websites. Social or
public policy is highly political and is created based upon a mixture of
interest group activity, public opinion, and values held by politicians at the
time of the making of public policy. Administration on the other hand is made
to not be political because of the fact that bureaucratic administration is
strictly the execution of laws and policy that has already been enacted.
Political Science is the study of both of these areas.
Introduction
I would like to introduce that expansion of our minds we may
regard as outside of the ALIEN ET BOX. That which we can share as outside of
this Omniverse as the ET Creator Deities also known as ALPHA and OMEGA or the
Beginning and End. We have all heard of the seven (7) heavens or have we?
Universe, Multiverse, Metaverse, Xenoverse, Omniverse, Alphaverse, Omegaverse.
The Golden Age of Cosmology is shared with the ACE Folklife common folk of the
world.
One may have noticed that the “COMMON FOLK” are those who
are in the streets these days uniting for common causes. It is said that there
are only 10% classed as the wealthiest in the world while the other 90% is not.
Does that mean that there is no middle ground for the middle class?
We share the planet as humanoid sentient intelligent beings
and we are all considered one species. Why is it that there has been allowed in
the past the corporations with their investors to believe that their CEO should
make 550 times that of the common employee? It is not fair and there has to be
some changes made in the world of corporate power and greed.
We believe in the social entrepreneurs of the social
networks. We also know that it is entrepreneurs of the world that learn to find
their passion, go out to create a better world with products and services, find
their teams and groups to work on their new projects to be called corporations
then go out and find their investors as angels for their investment capital.
This is the way it has always been since the world decided to revolve around
corporations and then came the stock markets.
Now, we can share the future Ascension Age as the Golden Age
of Cosmology and the NEW AGE ACE FOLKLIFE will share our cultural refinements
that include the changes to be made in politics and religions. We are seeing a
major change among the common folk all over the world.
We are now going to be able to assist the third world
countries and many of our churches are about feeding the hungry and educating
those who are unable to find education in their lives. This is a time that our
fellowship organizations can step up and be counted as the good Samaritans and
ask themselves for real what would Jesus do?
ALPHA & OMEGA SYNERGY ENERGY
ASCENSION AGE
(Golden Age Cosmology)
We all are experiencing our past, present, future as the
IMMORTALS of our SOULS!
Those who I am finding out on earth that are humanoids have
large holes in their education about who they are, why there are here, what
they are to explore, and what will happen to them when they leave earth.
Therefore, I am inclined to share what was sent to me as
inspired thoughts about the ASCENSION CENTER and the symbol. For those who
believe in ALIENS and ET one might believe that I am a messenger.
I believe I am based on my past life and death experiences
in this lifetime and my memories of reincarnation. I share what I can as what
is now referred to as a Spiritual Teacher or Spiritual Guide.
Some believe that Avatars are reincarnated spirits and I
tend to agree. There are spiritual avatars and internet avatars and in some
ways we are similar. Please share this article with those who believe in the
Alien ET Ascension Age. Some of us don’t only believe but we know of our
existence as those who are to share parts of ourselves. We know that something wonderful
is happening and occurring right now today as in the PRESENT!
We who are called PSYCHICS and REMOTE VIEWERS have all
learned to astral travel in a manner of speaking. We can share the various time
frames and dimensions we share in space that we call the cosmos. I shall end
this with a quote of Carl Sagan’s Cosmos but please take the time to read this
article and copy it to your ”Hidden Archive Treasure FILES”.
?
We are all “IMMORTAL SOULS” - Ascension Center Organization
teachers the continuous process of the expansion of our souls creations.
Theresa (Tara) J. Thurmond Morris – Founder of Ascension, ET Spirit, TJ
Alien to our own way of thinking is that which we call the
God force also known as the God Particle or ET particle in the cosmos. We of
the world that are sharing the word “FUTURISTS” as “SEERS” also enjoy knowing
that we can use our ”Screen of the mind” or our ”PSYCHE”.
I have shared a part of me in three (3) as that which has my
signature on what we call creation of websites on the Internet Online which is
our cyberspace reality in the cosmos.
1. AscensionCenter.org, 2. ETSpirit.org, 3. TJMorris.org as
my contribution to our future Esprit de Corps. I am choosing to share that
which I would normally place on these websites as that which also should be
welcomed by Dirk Vander Ploeg of UFO Digest.com.
We share our thoughts and creations on earth and welcome all
others who desire to link to us and our creations as websites in cyberspace.
Virtual reality is one layer of our existence.
as what is now referred to as a Spiritual Teacher or
Spiritual Guide. Some believe that Avatars are reincarnated spirits and I tend
to agree. There are spiritual avatars and internet avatars and in some ways we
are similar. Please share this article with those who believe in the Alien ET
Ascension Age. Some of us don’t only believe but we know of our existence as
those who are to share parts of ourselves. We know that something wonderful is
happening and occurring right now today as in the PRESENT!
We who are called PSYCHICS and REMOTE VIEWERS have all
learned to astral travel in a manner of speaking. We can share the various time
frames and dimensions we share in space that we call the cosmos. I shall end
this with a quote of Carl Sagan’s Cosmos but please take the time to read this
article and copy it to your ”Hidden Archive Treasure FILES”. We are all
“IMMORTAL SOULS” .
Alien to our own way of thinking is that which we call the
God force also known as the God Particle or ET particle in the cosmos. We of
the world that are sharing the word “FUTURISTS” as “SEERS” also enjoy knowing
that we can use our ”Screen of the mind” or our ”PSYCHE”.
I have shared a part of me in three (3) as that which has my
signature on what we call creation of websites on the Internet Online which is
our cyberspace reality in the cosmos.
1. AscensionCenter.org, 2. ETSpirit.org, 3. TJMorris.org as
my contribution to our future Esprit de Corps.
I am choosing to share that which I would normally place on
these websites as that which also should be welcomed by Dirk Vander Ploeg of
UFO Digest.com.
We share our thoughts and creations on earth and welcome all
others who desire to link to us and our creations as websites in cyberspace.
Virtual reality is one layer of our existence.
It is time we all gravitate toward our other selves as
real-time Avatars in Cyberspace in the WEB online. We are all now realizing we are
much more than our physical selves. We can create our thoughts into websites
and blogs in space that is electronically engineered in cyberspace that we call
the Web on the Internet online. Things are changing and so are we.
Please READ the FOLLOWING in it’s entirety in order to
understand more about the PAST-PRESENT-FUTURE of all of us!
That which claims to be both politics and religion are
changing in this world and we the people as the common folk are the reason. We
can see that the world we live that includes television and the entertainment
media is changing along with us. We have interests and now the Internet is
recording our interests and our involvement with our Internet is now being
archived not only as common groups with similar interests but as individuals.
This is also done in space by those we call ”ALIENS” and “ET”.
GET READY FOR THE ASCENSION AGE!
THE COSMOS
“I am that I AM” is a famous saying. We can all say and know
that as the God Particle Energy in each and everyone of us. However, can we all
agree that there is an outside force that flows inside of us all as that which
is also called the “I AM”?
Alpha and Omega in Greek is the same as in English saying A
and Z in the literal translation of thought and the way we think and surmise on
earth. However, we are now learning to accept the new age we call the
“ASCENSION AGE” in which we call our way of knowing and becoming awake and
aware of our own “Mortality”. Just as Steven Jobs passed on or died at the
young “Baby-boomer” age of 57 years, this has left us all confronting our own
“Mortality” and “Immortality”.
ALPHA and OMEGA
ALPHA and OMEGA CREATOR DIETIES
We have a history of our belief systems of the Alpha and
Omega of the Alphaverse, and Omegaverse home to our own Omniverse.
I have been impressed or inspired to share that which has
come to me due to questions that I have been asked about our Creator Deities
and the Omniverse in which we live. The fact that I thought that I was not
allowed to venture further our of my known conscious existence as that of the
Omniverse has changed in the last week. I should point out to my readers that
if one challenges their minds to look back in the history of my writings on UFO
Digest of which I am a contributing syndicated columnist one will find a
history of how I have grown in my own particles and waves flux and flows. I am
very happy to report that I now have the awakened awareness that we have that
of which I have known in the furthest solar core of my own soul as the Alpha
and Omega. The Alphaverse and Omegaverse to show those who are only into the
physical reality of science that there can be seven (7) levels and dimensions
to our souls eternal source and life force we presently address as energy and
essence. Our energy and essence is expressed in this lifetime as our SPIRIT! We
have learned that we all share something in common besides our own physical
makeup as humanoids with a head, trunk, and limbs. We have a brain that allows
us to think for ourselves. Inside our brain and inside our mind also exists our
own awareness of life that we call our conscious awareness of the fact that we
are alive. Some of us are only thinking about that which we can see, feel,
touch, taste, hear, and smell with what we are told are our five (5) senses. We
now know that our emotional state of being with our nervous system in tact
allows us to also understand and react to the outside stimulus we encounter on
a daily basis. It has now come to the attention of this one person also known
as a humanoid sentient intelligent being that we are much, much more than what
we perceive. We are all the creations that are here to explore our way back to
the creator deities of both Alpha and Omega.
Alpha is the male energy and Omega is the female energy that
we are all created with and sent in tachyon energy as the strongest force that
is now not understood. The Alpha wraps around the Omniverse. The Omega is the
entire womb of that which we call Alphaverse and Omniverse in one manner of
thinking in the Physical Cosmology. In the Religious Cosmology the Alphaverse
is the outer creation of the Omniverse, as well as, the Omega is the outer
creation of the Omniverse.
We now are in the quandary as to which came first the
chicken or the egg. We need both in order to understand the other. Therefore we
are now at the crossroads in Quantum Physics and the study of Quantum
Entanglement with what we call the Higgs-Boson Theory which is only one of many
new theories of everything.
(The theoretical ‘God’ particle might have a mass between
120 and 140GeV – looked much less conclusive among new statistics received from
the experiment. Guido Tonelli, spokesman for the Compact Muon Solenoid
Detector, a huge particle detector at CERN employing 3,600 scientists, told the
BBC’s Today programme this week, ‘If we exclude the existence of the Higgs this
will be a major discovery – it would completely review our vision of nature.’)
One of the biggest questions in science – does ‘the God particle’ exist? – is
likely to be answered by the end of next year, it was claimed yesterday.
The Higgs boson, nicknamed the God particle, is
theoretically responsible for mass, without which there would be no gravity and
no universe. Read more:
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2037722/God-particle-goes...
No one being can create that which gives us the spirit and
soul. We can clone animals but do they have the same soul content makeup of the
humanoids? Please begin updating your information on our COMMON and PRACTICAL
history of the past way we have been programmed. We will now all be able to
become more as we learn to receive divine revelations from that which we call
the alpha and omega forces direct.
Father Alpha and Mother Omega which is inside us all as both
a male and female energy entity.
We will learn some new ways to be, do, have, think, exist,
and what we thought in the past will now become history in various forms. We
share our Metaphysical, Physical, and Religious Cosmology in our ACE FOLKLIFE
on earth.
The Alpha and Omega allows us to now know that “ALIEN
CIVILIZATIONS EXIST!”
CDM or Lambda-CDM is an abbreviation for Lambda-Cold Dark
Matter, which is also known as the cold dark matter model with dark energy. It
is frequently referred to as the standard model of big bang cosmology, since it
attempts to explain: the existence and structure of the cosmic microwave
background the large scale structure of galaxy clusters the distribution of
hydrogen, helium, deuterium and lithium the accelerating expansion of the
universe observed in the light from distant galaxies and supernovae.
It is the simplest model that is in general agreement with
observed phenomena. Creator Deity -Metaphysical Cosmology(Physical Cosmology
& Religious Cosmology)Main article: Cosmology (metaphysics)In philosophy
and metaphysics, cosmology deals with the world as the totality of space, time
and all phenomena. Historically, it has had quite a broad scope, and in many
cases was founded in religion. The ancient Greeks did not draw a distinction
between this use and their model for the cosmos.
However, in modern use it addresses questions about the
Universe which are beyond the scope of science. It is distinguished from
religious cosmology in that it approaches these questions using philosophical
methods (e.g. dialectics). Modern metaphysical cosmology tries to address
questions such as:
What is the origin of the Universe?
What is its first cause? Is its existence necessary? (see
monism, pantheism, emanationism and creationism)
What are the ultimate material components of the Universe?
(see mechanism, dynamism, hylomorphism, atomism)
What is the ultimate reason for the existence of the
Universe? Does the cosmos have a purpose? (see teleology)Does the existence of
consciousness have a purpose? How do we know what we know about the totality of
the cosmos? Does cosmological reasoning reveal metaphysical truths?
A creator deity is a deity responsible for the creation of
the world (or universe). In monotheism, the single God is necessarily also the
creator deity, while polytheistic traditions may or may not have creator
deities. A number of monolatristic traditions separate a secondary creator from
a primary transcendent being, identified as a primary creator.
Cosmology is the discipline that deals with the origin,
structure, and space-time relationships of the universe or a theory or doctrine
describing the natural order of the universe .Cosmologists study the universe
as a whole: its birth, growth, shape, size and eventual fate. Modern cosmology
is dominated by the Big Bang theory, which brings together observational
astronomy and particle physics.
Though the word cosmology is recent (first used in 1730 in
Christian Wolff’s (Cosmologia Generalis), the study of the universe has a long
history involving science, philosophy, esotericism, metaphysics, and religion.
(See Cosmogony for the study of origins of the Universe and Cosmography for the
features of the Universe.) Physical cosmology, as a branch of astronomy, is the
study of the largest-scale structures and dynamics of the universe and is
concerned with fundamental questions about its formation and evolution.
For most of human history, it was a branch of metaphysics
and religion. Cosmology as a science originated with the Copernican principle,
which implies that celestial bodies obey identical physical laws to those on
Earth, and Newtonian mechanics, which first allowed us to understand those
laws. Physical cosmology, as it is now understood, began with the twentieth
century development of Albert Einstein’s general theory of relativity and
better astronomical observations of extremely distant objects.
These advances made it possible to speculate about the
origin of the universe, and allowed scientists to establish the Big Bang Theory
as the leading cosmological model. Some researchers still advocate a handful of
alternative cosmologies; however, cosmologists generally agree that the Big
Bang theory best explains observations.
Cosmology draws heavily on the work of many disparate areas
of research in physics. Areas relevant to cosmology include particle physics
experiments and theory, including string theory, astrophysics, general
relativity, and plasma physics. Thus, cosmology unites the physics of the
largest structures in the universe with the physics of the smallest structures
in the universe.
We now are in the quandary as to which came first the
chicken or the egg. We need both in order to understand the other.
Therefore we are now at the crossroads in Quantum Physics
and the study of Quantum Entanglement with what we call the Higgs-Boson Theory
which is only one of many new theories of everything. (The theoretical ‘God’
particle might have a mass between 120 and 140GeV – looked much less conclusive
among new statistics received from the experiment. Guido Tonelli, spokesman for
the Compact Muon Solenoid Detector, a huge particle detector at CERN employing
3,600 scientists, told the BBC’s Today programme this week, ‘If we exclude the
existence of the Higgs this will be a major discovery – it would completely
review our vision of nature.’) One of the biggest questions in science – does
‘the God particle’ exist? – is likely to be answered by the end of next year,
it was claimed yesterday.
The Higgs boson, nicknamed the God particle, is
theoretically responsible for mass, without which there would be no gravity and
no universe. Read more:
http://www.dailymail.co.uk/sciencetech/article-2037722/God-particle-goes... No
one being can create that which gives us the spirit and soul. We can clone
animals but do they have the same soul content makeup of the humanoids? Please
begin updating your information on our COMMON and PRACTICAL history of the past
way we have been programmed. We will now all be able to become more as we learn
to receive divine revelations from that which we call the alpha and omega
forces direct.
Father Alpha and Mother Omega which is inside us all as both
a male and female energy entity. We will learn some new ways to be, do, have,
think, exist, and what we thought in the past will now become history in
various forms. We share our Metaphysical, Physical, and Religious Cosmology in
our ACE FOLKLIFE on earth. The Alpha and Omega allows us to now know that
“ALIEN CIVILIZATIONS EXIST!” CDM or Lambda-CDM is an abbreviation for Lambda-Cold
Dark Matter, which is also known as the cold dark matter model with dark
energy.
It is frequently referred to as the standard model of big
bang cosmology, since it attempts to explain:
the existence and structure of the cosmic microwave
Background:
The large scale structure of galaxy clusters
The distribution of hydrogen, helium, deuterium and lithium
The accelerating expansion of the universe observed in the
light from distant galaxies and supernovae
It is the simplest model that is in general agreement with
observed phenomena. Creator Deity -Metaphysical Cosmology(Physical Cosmology
& Religious Cosmology)Main article: Cosmology (metaphysics)In philosophy
and metaphysics, cosmology deals with the world as the totality of space, time
and all phenomena. Historically, it has had quite a broad scope, and in many
cases was founded in religion. The ancient Greeks did not draw a distinction
between this use and their model for the cosmos. However, in modern use it
addresses questions about the Universe which are beyond the scope of science.
It is distinguished from religious cosmology in that it approaches these
questions using philosophical methods (e.g. dialectics). Modern metaphysical
cosmology tries to address questions such as:
What is the origin of the Universe? What is its first cause?
Is its existence necessary? (see monism, pantheism, emanationism and
creationism)
What are the ultimate material components of the Universe?
(see mechanism, dynamism, hylomorphism, atomism)What is the ultimate reason for
the existence of the Universe? Does the cosmos have a purpose? (see
teleology)Does the existence of consciousness have a purpose? How do we know
what we know about the totality of the cosmos? Does cosmological reasoning
reveal metaphysical truths?
A creator deity is a deity responsible for the creation of
the world (or universe). In monotheism, the single God is necessarily also the
creator deity, while polytheistic traditions may or may not have creator deities.
A number of monolatristic traditions separate a secondary creator from a
primary transcendent being, identified as a primary creator.
Cosmology is the discipline that deals with the origin,
structure, and space-time relationships of the universe or a theory or doctrine
describing the natural order of the universe .Cosmologists study the universe
as a whole: its birth, growth, shape, size and eventual fate. Modern cosmology
is dominated by the Big Bang theory, which brings together observational astronomy
and particle physics.
Though the word cosmology is recent (first used in 1730 in
Christian Wolff’s (Cosmologia Generalis), the study of the universe has a long
history involving science, philosophy, esotericism, metaphysics, and religion.
(See Cosmogony for the study of origins of the Universe and Cosmography for the
features of the Universe.) Physical cosmology, as a branch of astronomy, is the
study of the largest-scale structures and dynamics of the universe and is
concerned with fundamental questions about its formation and evolution. For
most of human history, it was a branch of metaphysics and religion. Cosmology
as a science originated with the Copernican principle, which implies that
celestial bodies obey identical physical laws to those on Earth, and Newtonian
mechanics, which first allowed us to understand those laws.
Physical cosmology, as it is now understood, began with the
twentieth century development of Albert Einstein’s general theory of relativity
and better astronomical observations of extremely distant objects. These
advances made it possible to speculate about the origin of the universe, and
allowed scientists to establish the Big Bang Theory as the leading cosmological
model. Some researchers still advocate a handful of alternative cosmologies;
however, cosmologists generally agree that the Big Bang theory best explains
observations.
Cosmology draws heavily on the work of many disparate areas
of research in physics. Areas relevant to cosmology include particle physics
experiments and theory, including string theory, astrophysics, general
relativity, and plasma physics. Thus, cosmology unites the physics of the
largest structures in the universe with the physics of the smallest structures
in the universe.
History of physical cosmology.(See also: Timeline of
cosmology and List of cosmologists)
Modern cosmology developed along tandem tracks of theory and
observation.
In 1915, Albert Einstein formulated his theory of general
relativity, which provided a unified description of gravity as a geometric
property of space and time. At the time, physicists believed in a perfectly
static universe that had no beginning or end. Einstein added a cosmological
constant to his theory in order to force it to model a static universe
containing matter. This so-called Einstein universe is, however, unstable; it
will eventually start expanding or contracting. The cosmological solutions of
general relativity were found by Alexander Friedmann, whose equations describe
the Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker universe, which may expand or contract.
In the 1910s, Vesto Slipher (and later Carl Wilhelm Wirtz)
interpreted the red shift of spiral nebulae as a Doppler shift that indicated
they were receding from Earth. However, it is difficult to determine the distance
to astronomical objects.
One way is to compare the physical size of an object to its
angular size, but a physical size must be assumed to do this. Another method is
to measure the brightness of an object and assume an intrinsic luminosity, from
which the distance may be determined using the inverse square law. Due to the
difficulty of using these methods, they did not realize that the nebulae were
actually galaxies outside our own Milky Way, nor did they speculate about the
cosmological implications.
In 1927, the Belgian Roman Catholic priest Georges Lemaître
independently derived the Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker equations and
proposed, on the basis of the recession of spiral nebulae, that the universe
began with the “explosion” of a “primeval atom”—which was later called the Big
Bang.
In 1929, Edwin Hubble provided an observational basis for
Lemaître’s theory. Hubble showed that the spiral nebulae were galaxies by
determining their distances using measurements of the brightness of Cepheid
variable stars. He discovered a relationship between the redshift of a galaxy
and its distance. He interpreted this as evidence that the galaxies are
receding from Earth in every direction at speeds directly proportional to their
distance.
This fact is now known as Hubble’s law, though the numerical
factor Hubble found relating recessional velocity and distance was off by a
factor of ten, due to not knowing at the time about different types of Cepheid
variables. Given the cosmological principle, Hubble’s law suggested that the
universe was expanding. There were two primary explanations put forth for the
expansion of the universe. One was Lemaître’s Big Bang theory, advocated and
developed by George Gamow.
The other possibility was Fred Hoyle’s steady state model in
which new matter would be created as the galaxies moved away from each other.
In this model, the universe is roughly the same at any point in time.
For a number of years the support for these theories was
evenly divided. However, the observational evidence began to support the idea
that the universe evolved from a hot dense state.
The discovery of the cosmic microwave background in 1965
lent strong support to the Big Bang model, and since the precise measurements
of the cosmic microwave background by the Cosmic Background Explorer in the
early 1990s, few cosmologists have seriously proposed other theories of the
origin and evolution of the cosmos. One consequence of this is that in standard
general relativity, the universe began with a singularity, as demonstrated by
Stephen Hawking and Roger Penrose in the 1960s.Light elements, primarily
hydrogen and helium, were created in the Big Bang. These light elements were
spread too fast and too thinly in the Big Bang process (see nucleosynthesis) to
form the most stable medium-sized atomic nuclei, like iron and nickel.
This fact allows for later energy release, as such
intermediate-sized elements are formed in our era. The formation of such atoms
powers the steady energy-releasing reactions in stars, and also contributes to
sudden energy releases, such as in novae. Gravitational collapse of matter into
black holes is also thought to power the most energetic processes, generally
seen at the centers of galaxies (see quasars and in general active galaxies).
Cosmologists are still unable to explain all cosmological
phenomena purely on the basis of known conventional forms of energy, for
example those related to the accelerating expansion of the universe, and
therefore invoke a yet unexplored form of energy called dark energy[2] to
account for certain cosmological observations. One hypothesis is that dark
energy is the energy of virtual particles (which mathematically must exist in
vacuum due to the uncertainty principle).
There is no unambiguous way to define the total energy of
the universe in the current best theory of gravity, general relativity. As a
result it remains controversial whether one can meaningfully say that total
energy is conserved in an expanding universe. For instance, each photon that
travels through intergalactic space loses energy due to the redshift effect.
This energy is not obviously transferred to any other
system, so seems to be permanently lost. Nevertheless some cosmologists insist
that energy is conserved in some sense.
Thermodynamics of the universe is a field of study to explore
which form of energy dominates the cosmos – relativistic particles which are
referred to as radiation, or non-relativistic particles which are referred to
as matter. The former are particles whose rest mass is zero or negligible
compared to their energy, and therefore move at the speed of light or very
close to it; the latter are particles whose kinetic energy is much lower than
their rest mass and therefore move much slower than the speed of light.
As the universe expands, both matter and radiation in it
become diluted. However, the universe also cools down, meaning that the average
energy per particle is getting smaller with time. Therefore the radiation
becomes weaker, and dilutes faster than matter. Thus with the expansion of the
universe radiation becomes less dominant than matter. In the very early
universe radiation dictates the rate of deceleration of the universe’s
expansion, and the universe is said to be ‘radiation dominated’. At later
times, when the average energy per photon is roughly 10 eV and lower, matter
dictates the rate of deceleration and the universe is said to be ‘matter
dominated’.
The intermediate case is not treated well analytically. As
the expansion of the universe continues, matter dilutes even further and the
cosmological constant becomes dominant, leading to an acceleration in the
universe’s expansion. History of the Universe
See also: Timeline of the Big Bang Theory.
The history of the universe is a central issue in cosmology.
The history of the universe is divided into different periods called epochs,
according to the dominant forces and processes in each period. The standard
cosmological model is known as the CDM
CDM Model. Equations of Motion
Main article: Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker metric
The equations of motion governing the universe as a whole
are derived from general relativity with a small, positive cosmological
constant.
The solution is an expanding universe; due to this expansion
the radiation and matter in the universe are cooled down and become diluted. At
first, the expansion is slowed down by gravitation due to the radiation and
matter content of the universe. However, as these become diluted, the
cosmological constant becomes more dominant and the expansion of the universe
starts to accelerate rather than decelerate. In our universe this has already
happened, billions of years ago.
Particle physics in cosmology
Particle physics is important to the behavior of the early
universe, since the early universe was so hot that the average energy density
was very high. Because of this, scattering processes and decay of unstable
particles are important in cosmology.
As a rule of thumb, a scattering or a decay process is
cosmologically important in a certain cosmological epoch if the time scale
describing that process is smaller or comparable to the time scale of the
expansion of the universe, which is 1 / H with H being the Hubble constant at
that time. This is roughly equal to the age of the universe at that time.
Timeline of the Big Bang
Observations suggest that the universe began around 13.7
billion years ago. Since then, the evolution of the universe has passed through
three phases. The very early universe, which is still poorly understood, was
the split second in which the universe was so hot that particles had energies
higher than those currently accessible in particle accelerators on Earth.
Therefore, while the basic features of this epoch have been
worked out in the Big Bang theory, the details are largely based on educated
guesses. Following this, in the early universe, the evolution of the universe
proceeded according to known high energy physics.
This is when the first protons, electrons and neutrons
formed, then nuclei and finally atoms. With the formation of neutral hydrogen,
the cosmic microwave background was emitted. Finally, the epoch of structure
formation began, when matter started to aggregate into the first stars and
quasars, and ultimately galaxies, clusters of galaxies and superclusters
formed.
The future of the universe is not yet firmly known, but
according to the CDM model it will continue expanding forever.
Areas of Study:
Below, some of the most active areas of inquiry in cosmology
are described, in roughly chronological order. This does not include all of the
Big Bang cosmology, which is presented in Timeline of the Big Bang.
The very early universe
While the early, hot universe appears to be well explained
by the Big Bang from roughly 10-33 seconds onwards, there are several problems.
One is that there is no compelling reason, using current particle physics, to
expect the universe to be flat, homogeneous and isotropic (see the cosmological
principle). Moreover, grand unified theories of particle physics suggest that
there should be magnetic monopoles in the universe, which have not been found.
These problems are resolved by a brief period of cosmic
inflation, which drives the universe to flatness, smooths out anisotropies and
in homogeneities to the observed level, and exponentially dilutes the
monopoles. The physical model behind cosmic inflation is extremely simple,
however it has not yet been confirmed by particle physics, and there are
difficult problems reconciling inflation and quantum field theory. Some
cosmologists think that string theory and brane cosmology will provide an
alternative to inflation.
Another major problem in cosmology is what caused the
universe to contain more particles than antiparticles. Cosmologists can
observationally deduce that the universe is not split into regions of matter
and antimatter. If it were, there would be X-rays and gamma rays produced as a
result of annihilation, but this is not observed.
This problem is called the baryon asymmetry, and the theory
to describe the resolution is called baryogenesis. The theory of baryogenesis
was worked out by Andrei Sakharov in 1967, and requires a violation of the
particle physics symmetry, called CP-symmetry, between matter and antimatter.
Particle accelerators, however, measure too small a violation of CP-symmetry to
account for the baryon asymmetry. Cosmologists and particle physicists are
trying to find additional violations of the CP-symmetry in the early universe
that might account for the baryon asymmetry. Both the problems of baryogenesis
and cosmic inflation are very closely related to particle physics, and their
resolution might come from high energy theory and experiment, rather than
through observations of the universe.?
Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
Big Bang Nucleosynthesis is the theory of the formation of
the elements in the early universe. It finished when the universe was about
three minutes old and its temperature dropped below that at which nuclear
fusion could occur. Big Bang nucleosynthesis had a brief period during which it
could operate, so only the very lightest elements were produced. Starting from
hydrogen ions (protons), it principally produced deuterium, helium-4 and
lithium. Other elements were produced in only trace abundances. The basic
theory of nucleosynthesis was developed in 1948 by George Gamow, Ralph Asher
Alpher and Robert Herman. It was used for many years as a probe of physics at
the time of the Big Bang, as the theory of Big Bang nucleosynthesis connects
the abundances of primordial light elements with the features of the early
universe. Specifically, it can be used to test the equivalence principle, to
probe dark matter, and test neutrino physics. Some cosmologists have proposed
that Big Bang nucleosynthesis suggests there is a fourth “sterile” species of
neutrino.
Cosmic Microwave Background
The cosmic microwave background is radiation left over from
decoupling after the epoch of recombination when neutral atoms first formed. At
this point, radiation produced in the Big Bang stopped Thomson scattering from
charged ions. The radiation, first observed in 1965 by Arno Penzias and Robert
Woodrow Wilson, has a perfect thermal black-body spectrum.
It has a temperature of 2.7 kelvins today and is isotropic
to one part in 105. Cosmological perturbation theory, which describes the
evolution of slight in homogeneities in the early universe, has allowed
cosmologists to precisely calculate the angular power spectrum of the
radiation, and it has been measured by the recent satellite experiments (COBE
and WMAP) and many ground and balloon-based experiments (such as Degree Angular
Scale Interferometer, Cosmic Background Imager, and Boomerang). One of the
goals of these efforts is to measure the basic parameters of the Lambda-CDM
model with increasing accuracy, as well as to test the predictions of the Big
Bang model and look for new physics. The recent measurements made by WMAP, for
example, have placed limits on the neutrino masses.
Newer experiments, such as QUIET and the Atacama Cosmology
Telescope, are trying to measure the polarization of the cosmic microwave
background. These measurements are expected to provide further confirmation of
the theory as well as information about cosmic inflation, and the so-called
secondary anisotropies, such as the Sunyaev-Zel’dovich effect and Sachs-Wolfe
effect, which are caused by interaction between galaxies and clusters with the
cosmic microwave background.
Formation and evolution of large-scale structure
Large-scale structure of the cosmos, Structure formation,
and Galaxy formation and evolution.
Understanding the formation and evolution of the largest and
earliest structures (i.e., quasars, galaxies, clusters and superclusters) is
one of the largest efforts in cosmology. Cosmologists study a model of
hierarchical structure formation in which structures form from the bottom up,
with smaller objects forming first, while the largest objects, such as
superclusters, are still assembling. One way to study structure in the universe
is to survey the visible galaxies, in order to construct a three-dimensional
picture of the galaxies in the universe and measure the matter power spectrum.
This is the approach of the Sloan Digital Sky Survey and the 2dF Galaxy
Redshift Survey.
Another tool for understanding structure formation is
simulations, which cosmologists use to study the gravitational aggregation of
matter in the universe, as it clusters into filaments, superclusters and voids.
Most simulations contain only non-baryonic cold dark matter, which should
suffice to understand the universe on the largest scales, as there is much more
dark matter in the universe than visible, baryonic matter. More advanced
simulations are starting to include baryons and study the formation of
individual galaxies. Cosmologists study these simulations to see if they agree
with the galaxy surveys, and to understand any discrepancy.
Other, complementary observations to measure the
distribution of matter in the distant universe and to probe reionization
include:
The Lyman alpha forest, which allows cosmologists to measure
the distribution of neutral atomic hydrogen gas in the early universe, by
measuring the absorption of light from distant quasars by the gas.
The 21 centimeter absorption line of neutral atomic hydrogen
also provides a sensitive test of cosmology.
Weak lensing, the distortion of a distant image by
gravitational lensing due to dark matter.
These will help cosmologists settle the question of when and
how structure formed in the universe. ?
Dark Matter
Evidence from Big Bang nucleosynthesis, the cosmic microwave
background and structure formation suggests that about 23% of the mass of the
universe consists of non-baryonic dark matter, whereas only 4% consists of
visible, baryonic matter.
The gravitational effects of dark matter are well
understood, as it behaves like a cold, non-radiative fluid that forms haloes
around galaxies. Dark matter has never been detected in the laboratory, and the
particle physics nature of dark matter remains completely unknown. Without
observational constraints, there are a number of candidates, such as a stable
supersymmetric particle, a weakly interacting massive particle, an axion, and a
massive compact halo object. Alternatives to the dark matter hypothesis include
a modification of gravity at small accelerations (MOND) or an effect from brane
cosmology.
Dark energy
If the universe is flat, there must be an additional
component making up 73% (in addition to the 23% dark matter and 4% baryons) of
the energy density of the universe. This is called dark energy. In order not to
interfere with Big Bang nucleosynthesis and the cosmic microwave background, it
must not cluster in haloes like baryons and dark matter. There is strong
observational evidence for dark energy, as the total energy density of the
universe is known through constraints on the flatness of the universe, but the
amount of clustering matter is tightly measured, and is much less than this.
The case for dark energy was strengthened in 1999, when measurements
demonstrated that the expansion of the universe has begun to gradually
accelerate.
Apart from its density and its clustering properties,
nothing is known about dark energy. Quantum field theory predicts a
cosmological constant much like dark energy, but 120 orders of magnitude larger
than that observed. Steven Weinberg and a number of string theorists (see
string landscape) have used this as evidence for the anthropic principle, which
suggests that the cosmological constant is so small because life (and thus
physicists, to make observations) cannot exist in a universe with a large
cosmological constant, but many people find this an unsatisfying explanation.
Other possible explanations for dark energy include
quintessence or a modification of gravity on the largest scales. The effect on
cosmology of the dark energy that these models describe is given by the dark
energy’s equation of state, which varies depending upon the theory. The nature
of dark energy is one of the most challenging problems in cosmology.
A better understanding of dark energy is likely to solve the
problem of the ultimate fate of the universe. In the current cosmological
epoch, the accelerated expansion due to dark energy is preventing structures
larger than superclusters from forming. It is not known whether the
acceleration will continue indefinitely, perhaps even increasing until a big
rip, or whether it will eventually reverse.
Other areas of inquiry:
Cosmologists also study:
Whether primordial black holes were formed in our universe,
and what happened to them.
The GZK cutoff for high-energy cosmic rays, and whether it
signals a failure of special relativity at high energies the equivalence
principle, whether or not Einstein’s general theory of relativity is the
correct theory of gravitation, and if the fundamental laws of physics are the
same everywhere in the universe.
See also:
Physics portal String Cosmology
Physical ontology
List of cosmologists
References^ For an overview, see George FR Ellis (2006).
“Issues in the Philosophy of Cosmology”. In Jeremy Butterfield & John
Earman. Philosophy of Physics (Handbook of the Philosophy of Science) 3 volume
set. North Holland. pp. 1183ff. arXiv:astro-ph/0602280. ISBN 0444515607.^ Science
20 June 2003:Vol. 300. no. 5627, pp. 1914 – 1918 Throwing Light on Dark Energy,
Robert P. Kirshner. Accessed December 2006^ e.g. Liddle, A.. An Introduction to
Modern Cosmology. Wiley. ISBN 0-470-84835-9. This argues cogently “Energy is
always, always, always conserved.”^ P. Ojeda and H. Rosu (Jun 2006).
“Supersymmetry of FRW barotropic cosmologies”. Internat. J. Theoret. Phys.
(Springer) 45: 1191–1196.arXiv:gr-qc/0510004. Bibcode 2006IJTP…45.1152R.
doi:10.1007/s10773-006-9123-2..
Polytheism
In polytheistic creation myths, the world often comes into
being organically, e.g. sprouting from a primal seed, sexually, by miraculous
birth(sometimes by parthenogenesis), by hierosgamos, violently, by the slaying
of a primeval monster, or artificially, by a divine demiurge or “craftsman”.
Sometimes, a god is involved, wittingly or unwittingly, in bringing about
creation.
Examples include:
African contexts:
Mbombo of Bakuba mythology, who vomited out the world upon
feeling a stomach ache;
Egyptian mythology
Atum in Ennead, whose semen becomes the primal components of
the universe.
Ptah creating the universe by speaking Unkulunkulu in Zulu
mythology American contexts:
Nanabozho (Great Rabbit,) Ojibway deity, a shape-shifter and
a cocreator of the world.
The goddess Coatlique in Aztec mythology; Viracocha in Inca
mythology;
A trickster deity in the form of a Raven in Inuit mythology;
Asian contexts:
El or the Elohim of Canaanite mythology (see Genesis
creation myth)Esege Malan in Mongolian mythology, king of the skies Kamuy in
Ainu mythology, who built the world on the back of a trout; Izanagi and Izanami
in Japanese mythology, who churned the ocean with a spear, creating the islands
of Japan
Marduk killing Tiamat in the Babylonian Enuma Elish
Vishvakarman in Vedic mythology, responsible for the creation of the universe
(while in later Puranic period, Brahma, Vishnu and Shiva are for creation,
maintenance and destruction, respectively)European contexts:
The sons of Borr slaying the primeval giant Ymir in Norse
mythology Rod in Slavic mythology.
Oceanic contexts:
Ranginui, the Sky Father, and Papatuanuku, the Earth Mother
in Maori mythology
Platonic demiurge
Demiurge
Further information: Neoplatonism and Gnosticism and Great
Architect of the Universe
Plato, in his dialogue Timaeus, describes a creation myth
involving a being called the demiurge (“craftsman”). This concept was continued
in Neoplatonism and Gnosticism. In Neoplatonism, the demiurge represents the
second cause or dyad, after the monad. In Gnostic dualism, the demiurge is an
imperfect spirit and possibly evil being, transcended by divine Fullness
(Pleroma). Unlike the Judeo-Christian God, Plato’s demiurge is unable to create
ex-nihilo.
Monolatrism
See also:
Brahma Monolatristic traditions would separate a secondary
creator from the primary transcendent being, identified as a primary creator.
According to Gaudiya Vaishnavas, Brahma is the secondary creator and not the
supreme. Vishnu is the primary creator. According to Vaishnavabelief Vishnu
creates the basic universal shell and provides all the raw materials and also
places the living entities within the material world, fulfilling their own
independent will. Brahma works with the materials provided by Vishnu to
actually create what are believed to be planets in Puranic terminology, and he
supervises the population of them.
Monism
Monism has its origin in Hellenistic philosophy as a concept
of all things deriving from a single substance or being. Following a long and
still current tradition H.P. Owen (1971: 65) claimed that:
“Pantheists are ‘monists’…they believe that there is only
one Being, and that all other forms of reality are either modes (or
appearances) of it or identical with it.” Although, like Baruch Spinoza, some
pantheists may also be monists, and monism may even be essential to some
versions of pantheism (like Spinoza’s), not all pantheists are monists. Some
are polytheists and some are pluralists; they believe that there are many
things and kinds of things and many different kinds of value.[
Not all monists are pantheists. Exclusive monists believe
that the universe, the God of the pantheist, simply does not exist. In
addition, monists can be Deists, pandeists, theists or panentheists; believing
in a monotheistic God that is omnipotent and all-pervading, and both
transcendent and immanent. There are monist pantheists and panentheists in
Hinduism(particularly in Advaita and Vishistadvaita respectively), Judaism
(monistic panentheism is especially found in Kabbalah and Hasidic philosophy),
in Christianity (especially among Oriental Orthodox, Eastern Orthodox, and
Anglicans) and in Islam (among the Sufis, especially the Bektashi).In Advaita
Vedanta, Brahman is the abstract notion of "the Absolute" from which
the universe takes its origin and at an ultimate level, all assertions of a
distinction between Brahman, other gods and creation are meaningless (monism).
Buddhism
The Buddha explicitly rejects a creator, denies endorsing
any views on creation and states that questions on the origin of the world are
worthless.
Some gods in Buddhism have the view that they are creators
of the world. For example, Baka Brahma. However, Buddha pointed out to them
that they do not know the whole extent of the universe (he said they have no
knowledge of some of the highest heavens), and further, the spiritual power of
the Buddha was greater than the spiritual power of these gods who thought they
created the world. One of the Suttasdealing with this subject is the Kevaddha
Sutta.
The Buddha said (in DN1 - the Brahmajala Sutta or The Net of
Views) that their view of being the creator of the world is a misconception,
and that these Brahma-gods actually have a cause which lead their origination (taking
birth as a Brahma-god). Buddha even tells how the views concerning 'creator
gods' originate in the world - through junior Brahma-gods (with a more limited
life-span) who, on their passing away, get reborn as a human, and through
practicing meditation are able to remember their previous life as a junior god
to a Brahma god. Then, he starts to preach this view of a 'creator god' to
others (see DN1 - the Brahmajala Sutta) starts to preach this view of a
'creator god' to others (see DN1 - the Brahmajala Sutta).?
Hinduism
Hindu creationism - Hindi Beliefs
Hinduism includes a range of viewpoints about the origin of
life, creationism and evolution. The accounts of the emergence of life within
the universe vary in description, but classically the god Brahma, from a
Trimurti of three gods also including Vishnu and Shiva, is described as
performing the act of creation, or more specifically of "propagating life
within the universe" with the other two deities being responsible for
preservation and destruction (of the universe) respectively.
Most Hindu schools do not regard the scriptural creation
myth as a literal truth, and often the creation stories themselves do not go
into specific detail, thus leaving open the possibility of incorporating at
least some theories in support of evolution. Some Hindus find support for, or
foreshadowing of evolutionary ideas in scriptures, namely the Vedas. An
exception to this acceptance is the International Society for Krishna
Consciousness (ISKCON), which includes several members who actively oppose
"Darwinism" and the modern evolutionary synthesis.?
Jainism
Jainism and non-creationism
Jainism does not support belief in a creator deity.
According to Jain doctrine, the universe and its constituents - soul, matter,
space, time, and principles of motion have always existed (a static universe
similar to that of Epicureanism and steady state cosmological model). All the
constituents and actions are governed by universal natural laws. It is not
possible to create matter out of nothing and hence the sum total of matter in
the universe remains the same (similar to law of conservation of mass).
Similarly, the soul of each living being is unique and uncreated and has
existed since beginningless time.
The Jain theory of causation holds that a cause and its
effect are always identical in nature and therefore a conscious and immaterial
entity like God cannot create a material entity like the universe. Furthermore,
according to the Jain concept of divinity, any soul who destroys its karmas and
desires, achieves liberation. A soul who destroys all its passions and desires
has no desire to interfere in the working of the universe. Moral rewards and
sufferings are not the work of a divine being, but a result of an innate moral
order in the cosmos; a self-regulating mechanism whereby the individual reaps
the fruits of his own actions through the workings of the karmas.
Through the ages, Jain philosophers have adamantly rejected
and opposed the concept of creator and omnipotent God and this has resulted in
Jainism being labeled as nastika darsana or atheist philosophy by the rival
religious philosophies. The theme of non-creationism and absence of omnipotent
God and divine grace runs strongly in all the philosophical dimensions of
Jainism, including its cosmology, karma,moksa and its moral code of conduct.
Jainism asserts a religious and virtuous life is possible without the idea of a
creator god. ?
Monotheism
How we accept our cultural traditions in One God Reality
Judaism, Christianity, Islam and Sikhism teach that creation
is the origin of the universe by the action of God.
Among monotheists it has historically been most commonly
believed that living things are God's creations, and are not the result of a
process inherent in originally non-living things, unless this process is
designed, initiated, or directed by God; likewise, sentient and intelligent
beings are believed to be God's creation, and did not arise through the
development of living but non-sentient beings, except by the intervention of
God.
Baha’I
Bahá'í teachings state that God is too great for humans to
fully comprehend, or to create a complete and accurate image of, by themselves.
Therefore, human understanding of God is achieved through his revelations via
his Manifestations. In the Bahá'í religion God is often referred to by titles and
attributes (e.g. the All-Powerful, or the All-Loving), and there is a
substantial emphasis on monotheism.
Chinese Mythology
Pangu can be interpreted as another creator deity. In the
beginning there was nothing in the universe except a formless chaos.
However this chaos began to coalesce into a cosmic egg for
eighteen thousand years. Within it, the perfectly opposed principles of yin and
yang became balanced and Pangu emerged (or woke up) from the egg. Pangu is
usually depicted as a primitive, hairy giant with horns on his head (like the
Greek Pan) and clad in furs. Pangu set about the task of creating the world: he
separated Yin from Yang with a swing of his giant axe, creating the Earth
(murky Yin) and the Sky (clear Yang). To keep them separated, Pangu stood
between them and pushed up the Sky. This task took eighteen thousand years,
with each day the sky grew ten feet higher, the Earth ten feet wider, and Pangu
ten feet taller. In some versions of the story, Pangu is aided in this task by
the four most prominent beasts, namely the Turtle, the Qilin, the Phoenix, and
the Dragon.
Shangdi is another creator deity, possibly prior to Pangu
sharing concepts similar to abrahamic faiths.
After the eighteen thousand years had elapsed, Pangu was
laid to rest. His breath became the wind; his voice the thunder; left eye the
sun and right eye the moon; his body became the mountains and extremes of the
world; his blood formed rivers; his muscles the fertile lands; his facial hair
the stars and milky way; his fur the bushes and forests; his bones the valuable
minerals; his bone marrows sacred diamonds; his sweat fell as rain; and the
fleas on his fur carried by the wind became human beings all over the world.
The distance from Earth and Sky at the end of the 18,000 years
would have been 65,700,000 feet, or over 12,443 miles.
The first writer to record the myth of Pangu was Xu Zheng
during the Three Kingdoms period.?
Christianity
See also: Christ the Logos
It is a tenet of Christian faith (Roman Catholic, Orthodox and
Protestant) that God is the creator of all things from nothing but by his word,
and has made human beings in the Image of God, who by direct inference is also
the source of the human soul. Within this broad understanding, however, there
are a number of views regarding exactly how this doctrine ought to be
interpreted.
Some Christians, mainly evangelical Protestants,
particularly Young Earth creationists and Old Earth creationists, interpret
Genesis as a historical, accurate, and literal account of creation. Others, in
contrast, may understand these to be, not statements of historic fact, but
rather spiritual insights more vaguely defined.
While the synoptic gospels do not address the question of
creation, the Gospel of John famously begins:
"In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with
God, and the Word was God. He was in the beginning with God. All things came
into being through Him, and apart from Him nothing came into being that has
come into being ... And the Word became flesh, and dwelt among us, and we saw
His glory, glory as of the only begotten from the Father, full of grace and
truth" .The Epistle to the Hebrews, a book of the New Testament, contains
another reference to creation:
"For by faith we understand the worlds were prepared by
the word of God, so that what is seen was not made out of things which are
visible" .Thus, in Chalcedonian Christology, Jesus is the Word of God,
which was in the beginning and, thus, is uncreated, and hence is God, and
consequently identical with the Creator of the world ex nihilo.
The Catholic Church allows for either a literal or
allegorical interpretation of Genesis, so as to allow for the possibility of
Creation by means of an evolutionary process over great spans of time,
otherwise known as theistic evolution. It believes that the creation of the
world is a work of God through the Logos, the Word (idea, intelligence, reason
and logic).The New Testament claims that God created everything by the eternal
Word, Jesus Christ his beloved Son.
In him "all things were created, in heaven and on
earth.. . all things were created through him and for him. He is before all
things, and in him all things hold together.
Surrounded by a pervasive culture of rationalism, relativism
and secularism, the Catholic Church has asserted the primacy of reason in
Christian Theology.
In a 1999 lecture at the University of Paris, then-Cardinal
Joseph Ratzinger said:
"The question is ... whether reason, being a chance
by-product of irrationality and floating in an ocean of irrationality, is
ultimately just as meaningless; or whether the principle that represents the
fundamental conviction of Christian faith and of its philosophy remains true:
"In principio erat Verbum" — at the beginning of all things stands
the creative power of reason. Now as then, Christian faith represents the
choice in favor of the priority of reason and of rationality. [...] there is no
ultimate demonstration that the basic choice involved in Christianity is
correct. Yet, can reason really renounce its claim to the priority of what is
rational over the irrational, the claim that the Logos is at the ultimate
origin of things, without abolishing itself?” "Even today, by reason of
its choosing to assert the primacy of reason, Christianity remains
“enlightened,” and I think that any enlightenment that cancels this choice
must, contrary to all appearances, mean, not an evolution, but an involution, a
shrinking, of enlightenment.
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
Followers of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day
Saints, and others within Mormonism, believe that “the elements are eternal”
(Doctrine & Covenants § 93:33), and that God (our Father in Heaven–the
Creator, Sustainer, and Governor of the Universe)–organized or wrought the
creation of the Earth through His Son, Jesus Christ (known as YHWH “Jehovah” of
the Old Testament), Who was with Him in the beginning (John 1:1-2, 14): “And by
the word of my power have I created them [i.e., the Earth and its many
inhabitants], which is mine Only Begotten Son, who is full of grace and truth”
(Moses 1:32).
God, the Father, had His Son fashion the eternal elements
into the Earth upon which we live over the course of six creative periods that
He called “days” (yom in Hebrew, Genesis 1:5)(note, however, that there is
nothing to suggest that these six days were either immediately contiguous or of
24 hours duration (indeed, as to the latter, the data suggests that these
“days” were rather longer)).
“We will go down,” said Jehovah, “for there is space there,
and we will take of these [already existing] materials, and we will make an
earth whereon these [i.e., us] may dwell” (Abraham 3:24). But Latter-day Saint
theology does not perceive God as the Creator of our Earth alone, but of
countless worlds: “worlds without number have I created; and I also created
them for mine own purpose; and by the Son I created them, which is mine Only
Begotten” (Moses 1:33), ” By him, and through him, and of him, the worlds are
and were created, and the inhabitants thereof are begotten sons and daughters
unto God” (Doctrine & Covenants 76:24).In short, the Creator is an
architect and organizer of pre-existing matter and energy, who constructed our
original Earth and other worlds out of this raw material according to the laws
and principles He has decreed shall govern such things.
Creationism
Christian fundamentalism in the USA since the 1930s has
pursued Biblical literalist doctrines of “Creationism” as a counter-hypothesis
opposing the scientific community, with concepts such as flood geology,
creation science and intelligent design proposed as syntheses of Christian
creation beliefs and scientific method.
Judaism
Further information: Genesis creation myth
Orthodox Judaism historically affirms that one incorporeal
God (self-identified to Moses as Yahweh) is the creator of all things (many
references available, see Job 38-41, for example), and that this same one
created Adam and Eve personally (directly). They affirm that this Being is an
indivisible one, incomparable to any created thing, and immutable.
Islam
Islamic creationism
According to Islam, God, known in Arabic as Allah, is the
all-powerful and all-knowing Creator, Sustainer, Ordainer, and Judge of the
universe. Islam puts a heavy emphasis on the conceptualization of God as
strictly singular (tawhid). God is unique (wahid) and inherently one (ahad),
all-merciful and omnipotent. According to tradition there are 99 Names of God
(al-asma al-husna lit. meaning: “The best names”) each of which evoke a
distinct attribute of God. All these names refer to Allah, the supreme and
all-comprehensive divine name. Among the 99 names of God, the most famous and
most frequent of these names are “the Compassionate” (al-rahman) and “the
Merciful” (al-rahim).Creation is seen as an act of divine choice and mercy, one
with a grand purpose: “And We did not create the heaven and earth and that
between them in play.” Rather, the purpose of humanity is to be tested: “Who
has created death and life, that He may test you which of you is best in deed.
And He is the All-Mighty, the Oft-Forgiving; “Those who pass the test are
rewarded with Paradise: “Verily for the Righteous there will be a fulfillment
of (the heart’s) desires;
“According to the Islamic teachings, God exists above the
heavens and the creation itself. The Qur’an mentions, “He it is Who created for
you all that is on earth. Then He Istawa (rose over) towards the heaven and
made them seven heavens and He is the All-Knower of everything. “At the same
time, God is unlike anything in creation: “There is nothing like unto Him, and
He is the Hearing, the Seeing.” and nobody can perceive God in totality:
“Vision perceives Him not, but He perceives [all] vision; and He is the Subtle,
the Acquainted.” God in Islam is not only majestic and sovereign, but also a
personal God: “And indeed We have created man, and We know what his ownself
whispers to him. And We are nearer to him than his jugular vein (by Our
Knowledge).”Allah commands the believers to constantly remember Him (“O you who
have believed, remember Allah with much remembrance”) and to invoke Him alone
(“And whoever invokes besides Allah another deity for which he has no proof –
then his account is only with his Lord. Indeed, the disbelievers will not
succeed.”)Islam teaches that God as referenced in the Qur’an is the only god
and the same God worshipped by members of other Abrahamic religions such as
Christianity and Judaism. (29:46).
Sikhism
Sikh beliefs
One of the biggest responsibilities in Sikhism is to worship
God as “The Creator”, termed Waheguru who is shapeless, timeless, and
sightless, i.e., Nirankar, Akal, and Alakh Niranjan. The religion only takes
after the belief in “One God for All” or Ik Onkar. ?
MYTHOLOGICAL COSMOLOGY also RELIGIOUS COSMOLOGY
A Religious cosmology (also mythological cosmology) is a way
of explaining the origin, the history and the evolution of the universe based
on the religious mythology of a specific tradition. Religious cosmologies
usually include an act or process of creation by a creator deity or a larger
pantheon.
Buddhism
Buddhist cosmology
In Buddhism, the universe comes into existence dependent
upon the actions (karma) of its inhabitants. Buddhists posit neither an
ultimate beginning or final end to the universe, but see the universe as
something in flux, passing in and out of existence, parallel to an infinite
number of other universes doing the same thing.
The Buddhist universe consists of a large number of worlds
which correspond to different mental states, including passive states of
trance, passionless states of purity, and lower states of desire, anger, and
fear. The beings in these worlds are all coming into existence or being born,
and passing out of existence into other states, or dying. A world comes into
existence when the first being in it is born, and ceases to exist, as such,
when the last being in it dies. The universe of these worlds also is born and
dies, with the death of the last being preceding a universal conflagration that
destroys the physical structure of the worlds; then, after an interval, beings
begin to be born again and the universe is once again built up. Other
universes, however, also exist, and there are higher planes of existence which
are never destroyed, though beings that live in them also come into and pass
out of existence.
As well as a model of universal origins and destruction,
Buddhist cosmology also functions as a model of the mind, with its thoughts
coming into existence based on preceding thoughts, and being transformed into
other thoughts and other states.
Hebrew Bible
Further information: Biblical cosmology and Genesis creation
myth
The main Judeo-Christian religious text, the Bible, opens
with a story of creation. The first two chapters of the Book of Genesis
describe the creation of heaven and earth by God (called both Elohim and Yhvh)
in six successive days.
First day: God creates light (“Let there be light!”)[Gen
1:3]—the first divine command. The light is divided from the darkness, and
“day” and “night” are named.
Second day: God creates a firmament (“Let a firmament
be…!”)[Gen 1:6–7]—the second command—to divide the waters above from the waters
below. The firmament is named “heaven” (shamayim).
Third day: God commands the waters below to be gathered
together in one place, and dry land to appear (the third command).[Gen
1:9–10]“earth” and “sea” are named. God commands the earth to bring forth
grass, plants, and fruit-bearing trees (the fourth command).
Fourth day: God creates lights in the firmament (the fifth
command)[Gen 1:14–15] to separate light from darkness and to mark days, seasons
and years. Two great lights are made and the stars.
Fifth day: God commands the sea to “teem with living
creatures”, and birds to fly across the heavens (sixth command)[Gen 1:20–21] He
creates birds and sea creatures, and commands them to be fruitful and multiply.
Sixth day: God commands the land to bring forth living
creatures (seventh command); He makes wild beasts, livestock and “every thing
that creepeth upon the earth”.[Gen 1:24–25] He then creates humanity in His
“image” and “likeness” (eighth command).[Gen 1:26–28] They are told to “be
fruitful, and multiply, and fill the earth, and subdue it.” The totality of
creation is described by God as “very good.”
Seventh day: God, having completed the heavens and the
earth, rests from His work, and blesses and sanctifies the seventh day. [Gen
2:2]
Christianity:
See also: Biblical cosmology, Ex nihilo, and Creationism
It is a tenet of Christian faith (Roman Catholic, Orthodox
and Protestant) that God is the creator of all things from nothing, and has
made human beings in the Image of God, who by direct inference is also the
source of the human soul. In Chalcedonian Christology, Jesus is the Word of
God, which was in the beginning and, thus, is uncreated, and hence is God, and
consequently identical with the Creator of the worldex nihilo.
The New Testament claims that God created everything by the
eternal Word, Jesus Christ his beloved Son. In him “All things were created, in
heaven and on earth.. . all things were created through him and for him. He is
before all things, and in him all things hold together.
Latter Day Saints (LDS)
Mormon
Mormon cosmology
Mormon cosmology draws from Biblical cosmology, but has many
unique elements provided by Latter Day Saint movement founder Joseph Smith, Jr.
According to Mormon cosmology, there was a pre-existence,
better described as a pre-mortal life, in which human spirits were literal
children of heavenly parents.
Though their spirits were created, the essential
“intelligence” of these spirits is considered eternal, and without beginning.
During this pre-existence, two plans were said to have been presented, one
championed by Lucifer (Satan) that would have involved loss of moral agency,
and another championed by God the Father. When his plan was not accepted,
Lucifer is said to have rebelled and taken a third of the hosts of heaven with
him to the earth to serve as tempters. According to a plan of salvation as
described by God the Father, Jesus would create the earth, under the direction
of God the Father, as a place where humanity would be tested.
After the resurrection all men and women except spirits that
followed Lucifer and the sons of perdition would be assigned one of three
degrees of glory.
Within the highest degree, the Celestial Kingdom, there are
three divisions, and those in the highest of these divisions would become gods
and goddesses through a process called exaltation or “eternal progression”.
Celestial Kingdom, Terrestrial Kingdom, and Telestial Kingdom are the three
divisions of the three degrees of glory.
This would involve having spirit children and populating new
worlds.
The Earth’s creation, according to Mormon scripture, was not
ex nihilo, but organized from existing matter.
The faith teaches that this earth is just one of many
inhabited worlds, and that there are many governing heavenly bodies, including
a planet or star Kolob which is said to be nearest the throne of God. According
to some Mormon sources, God the Father himself was once like a human, and lived
on a planet with his own higher god.
Hindu
The Hindu cosmology and timeline is the closest to modern
scientific timelines and even more which might indicate that the Big Bang is
not the beginning of everything but just the start of the present cycle
preceded by an infinite number of universes and to be followed by another
infinite number of universes.
The Rig Veda questions the origin of the cosmos in: “Neither
being (sat) nor non-being was as yet. What was concealed? And where? And in
whose protection?…Who really knows? Who can declare it? Whence was it born, and
whence came this creation? The devas were born later than this world’s
creation, so who knows from where it came into existence? None can know from
where creation has arisen, and whether he has or has not produced it. He who
surveys it in the highest heavens, he alone knows-or perhaps does not know.”
(Rig Veda 10. 129) Large scale structure of the Universe according to one Hindu
cosmology. Intermediate neighborhood of the Earth according to one Hindu
cosmology.
We have the neighborhood of the Earth according to one Hindu
cosmology. The Rig Veda’s view of the cosmos also sees one true divine
principle self-projecting as the divine word, Vaak, ‘birthing’ the cosmos that
we know, from the monistic Hiranyagarbha or Golden Womb. The Hiranyagarbha is
alternatively viewed as Brahma, the creator who was in turn created by God, or
as God (Brahman) himself.
The universe is considered to constantly expand since
creation and disappear into a thin haze after billions of years.
An alternate view is that the universe begins to contract
after reaching its maximum expansion limits until it disappears into a fraction
of a millimeter
The creation begins anew after billions of years (Solar
years) of non-existence.
The puranic view asserts that the universe is created,
destroyed, and re-created in an eternally repetitive series of cycles. In Hindu
cosmology, a universe endures for about 4,320,000,000 years (one day of Brahma,
the creator or kalpa) and is then destroyed by fire or water elements. At this
point, Brahma rests for one night, just as long as the day. This process, named
pralaya (Cataclysm), repeats for 100 Brahma years (311 Trillion, 40 Billion
Human Years) that represents Brahma’s lifespan. It must be noted that Brahma is
the creator but not necessarily regarded as God in Hinduism. He is mostly
regarded as a creation of God / Brahman.
We are currently believed to be in the 51st year of the
present Brahma and so about 156 trillion years have elapsed since He was born
as Brahma. After Brahma’s “death”, it is necessary that another 100 Brahma
years (311 Trillion, 40 Billion Years) pass until a new Brahma is born and the
whole creation begins anew. This process is repeated again and again, forever.
Brahma’s day is divided in one thousand cycles (Maha Yuga, or the Great
Year).Maha Yuga, during which life, including the human race appears and then
disappears, has 71 divisions, each made of 14 Manvantara (1000) years. Each Maha
Yuga lasts for 4,320,000 years. Manvantara is Manu’s cycle, the one who gives
birth and governs the human race.
Each Maha Yuga consists of a series of four shorter yugas,
or ages. The yugas get progressively worse from a moral point of view as one
proceeds from one yuga to another. As a result, each yuga is of shorter
duration than the age that preceded it.
The current Kali Yuga (Iron Age) began at midnight 17
February / 18 February in 3102 BC in the proleptic Julian calendar.
Space and time are considered to be maya (illusion).
What looks like 100 years in the cosmos of Brahma could be
thousands of years in other worlds, millions of years in some other worlds and
311 trillion and 40 billion years for our solar system and earth.
Islam
Islamic cosmology and Sufi Cosmology
Islam preaches that God, or Allah, created the universe,
including Earth’s physical environment and human beings. The highest goal is to
visualize the cosmos as a book of symbols for meditation and contemplation for
spiritual upliftment or as a prison from which the human soul must escape to
attain true freedom in the spiritual journey to God. Islam elaborates on
cosmology in many instances. A modern English translation of the Quran
describes the creation of the universe as follows:”We have built the heaven
with might, and We are Steadily Expanding it.”51:47 Earlier English
translations like for example Ahmed Ali, The Noble Qur’an, Pickthal, Shakir and
Yusuf Ali never specify the expansion as a process that is still going on so it
seems to be an addition after the expansion of the universe became a generally
accepted scientific fact.
Below here there are some other citations from the Quran on
cosmology.
“Do not the Unbelievers see that the heavens and the earth
were joined together (as one unit of creation), before we clove them asunder?
We made from water every living thing. Will they not then believe?” 21:30 Yusuf
Ali translation
“The Day that We roll up the heavens like a scroll rolled up
for books (completed),- even as We produced the first creation, so shall We
produce a new one: a promise We have undertaken: truly shall We fulfil it.”
21:104 Yusuf Ali translation
Jainism
Jain cosmology
Jain cosmology considers the loka, or universe, as an
uncreated entity, existing since infinity, having no beginning or an end. Jain
texts describe the shape of the universe as similar to a man standing with legs
apart and arm resting on his waist. This Universe, according to Jainism, is
narrow at the top, broad at the middle and once again becomes broad at the
bottom.
Mahapura’a of Acarya Jinasena is famous for this quote:
“Some foolish men declare that a creator made the world. The doctrine that the
world was created is ill advised and should be rejected. If God created the
world, where was he before the creation? If you say he was transcendent then
and needed no support, where is he now? How could God have made this world
without any raw material?
If you say that he made this first, and then the world, you
are faced with an endless regression.”
Taoism
Chinese creation myth and Tian
The cosmology of Taoism beliefs is a complex mixture of
different beliefs. There is a “primordial universe” Wuji (philosophy), and
Hongjun Laozu, water or qi. It transformed into Taiji and multiplied into
everything.
The Pangu legend tells a formless chaos coalesced into a
cosmic egg. Pangu emerged (or woke up) and separated Yin from Yang with a swing
of his giant axe, creating the Earth (murky Yin) and the Sky (clear Yang). To
keep them separated, Pangu stood between them and pushed up the Sky. After
Pangu died, he became everything. See also Bahá’í cosmology
Raelian cosmology
Zoroastrian cosmology
References:^ CCC Search Result – Paragraph # 291^ LDS Church
(1995) (“Each [human] is a beloved spirit son or daughter of heavenly
parents.”); LDS Church (1997, p. 11) (“Man, as a spirit, was begotten and born
of heavenly parents, and reared to maturity in the eternal mansions of the
Father.”).^ http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e459?_hi=10&_pos=2^
“This universe is not created nor sustained by anyone; It is self sustaining,
without any base or support” “Nishpaadito Na Kenaapi Na Dhritah Kenachichch Sah
Swayamsiddho Niradhaaro Gagane Kimtvavasthitah” [Yogasastra of Acarya
Hemacandra 4.106] Tr by Dr. A. S. Gopani^ See Hemacandras description of
universe in Yogasastra “…Think of this loka as similar to man standing
akimbo…”4.103-6
See Also:
Biblical Cosmology,
Brahma Cosmogony,
Cosmological argument,
Cosmology Dating Creation,
Day-Age Creationism
Deism Existence, Gap Creationism,
Great Spirit,
Intelligent designer,
Jainism and non-creationism,
Old Earth Creationism
Tzimtzum
Young Earth Creationism
The term Alpha and Omega comes from the phrase “I am the
alpha and the omega” (Koiné Greek: an appellation of Jesus in the Book of
Revelation (verses 1:8, 21:6, and 22:13). In the Book of Revelation, it reads
“I am the Alpha and Omega, the first and the last.” The first part of this
phrase (“I am the Alpha and Omega”) is first found in Chapter 1 verse 8, and is
found in every manuscript of Revelation that has 1v8. Several later manuscripts
repeat “I am the Alpha and Omega” in 1v11 too, but it does not receive support
here from most of the oldest manuscripts, including the Alexandrine, Sinaitic,
and Codex Ephraemi Rescriptus. It is, therefore, omitted in some modern
translations. Scholar Robert Young stated, with regards to “I am the Alpha and
Omega” in 1v11, that the “oldest MSS. omit” it.
Its meaning is found in the fact that alpha (A) and omega
(O) are respectively the first and last letters of the Classical (Ionic) Greek
alphabet. This would be similar to referring to someone in English as the “A
and Z”. Thus, twice when the title appears it is further clarified with the
additional title “the beginning and the end” (21:6, 22:13).
Though many commentators and dictionaries apply this title
both to God and to Christ, some secular sources argue otherwise. Barnes’ Notes
on the New Testament (1974) claims: “It cannot be absolutely certain that the
writer meant to refer to the Lord Jesus specifically here… There is no real
incongruity in supposing, also, that the writer here meant to refer to God as
such.” However, most Christian denominations teach that it does apply to Jesus
and God as they are one; Revelation Chapter 22 has Jesus himself saying the
words: “I am the Alpha and Omega, the First and the Last”. Therefore the
letters Alpha and Omega in juxtaposition are often used as a Christian visual
symbol (see examples).
The letters were shown hanging from the arms of the cross in
Early Christian art, and some crosses in precious metal have formed letters
hanging in this way. In fact, despite always being in Greek, the letters became
more common in Western than Eastern Orthodox Christian art. They are often
shown to the left and right of Christ’s head, sometimes within his halo, where
they take the place of the christogram used in Orthodox art.
This symbol was suggested by the Apocalypse, where many
believe that Christ, as well as the Father, is “the First and the Last” (ii,
8); “the Alpha and Omega, the first and the last, the beginning and the end”
(cf., xxii, 13; i, 8). Clement of Alexandria (2nd century, philosopher and
commentator on pagan and Christian information) speaks of the Word as “the
Alpha and the Omega of Whom alone the end becomes beginning, and ends again at
the original beginning without any break” (Stromata, IV, 25).
Tertullian (lawyer, theologian) also alludes to Christ as
the Alpha and Omega (De Monogamiâ, v), and from Prudentius (Cathemer., ix, 10)
we learn that in the fourth century the interpretation of the apocalyptic
letters was still the same: “Alpha et Omega cognominatus, ipse fons et
clausula, Omnium quae sunt, fuerunt, quaeque post futura sunt.” It was,
however, in the monuments of early Christianity that the symbolic Alpha and
Omega had their greatest vogue.
This phrase is interpreted by many Christians to mean that
Jesus existed from eternity (as the second person of the Trinity), and will
exist eternally. Alpha and omega are the first and last letters of the Greek
alphabet, signifying that God is “the beginning and the end,” or eternal. The
symbols were used in early Christianity and appear in the Roman catacombs.
The Alpha and Omega symbols are often combined with the
cross, chi rho, or other Christian symbols.
Judaism
In Rabbinic literature, the word emet (meaning “truth”), one
of the names of God in Judaism, has been interpreted as consisting of the
first, middle and final letters of the Hebrew alphabet.
Islam
The Qur’an gives al’Awwal meaning “The First” and al’Akhir ,
meaning “The Last” as two of the names of God: 57:3. Babylonian cosmology
Babylonian literature (1900-1200 BC) Plurality of heavens
and earths The Earth and Heavens are a “spatial whole, even one of round
shape,” revolving around the “cult-place of the deity”[clarification needed]
rather than the Earth,[6] and there is a plurality of heavens and earths.
Brahmanda (Hindu Cosmology) Hindu Rigveda(1700–1100 BC) Cyclical or
oscillating, Infinite in time The universe sustains for around
311,040,000,000,000 years, or 100 Years of Brahma. There is a smaller period of
unmanifestation in around 4 billion years, that is, one Day of Brahma. The
universe cycles between expansion and total collapse.
After one cycle of the life of Brahma another universe
follows for infinity, each of which exists for a time period of 311 trillion 40
billion years. It also speaks of an infinite number of universes at one given point
of time.
The Universe expanded from a concentrated form, a point
called a Bindu. The universe, as a living entity, is bound to the perpetual
cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. Atomist universe Anaxagoras (500-428 BC)
& later.
Epicurus Infinite in extent - The universe contains only two
things: an infinite number of tiny seeds, or atoms, and the void of infinite
extent. All atoms are made of the same substance, but differ in size and shape.
Objects are formed from atom aggregations and decay back into atoms.
Incorporates Leucippus’ principle of causality: “nothing happens at random;
everything happens out of reason and necessity.” The universe was not ruled by
gods.
Pythagorean universe Philolaus (d. 390 BC) Existence of a
“Central Fire” at the center of the Universe. At the center of the Universe is
a central fire, around which the Earth, Sun, Moon and planets revolve
uniformly.
The Sun revolves around the central fire once a year, the
stars are immobile. The earth in its motion maintains the same hidden face
towards the central fire, hence it is never seen. This is the first known
non-geocentric model of the Universe.[8]Stoic universe Stoics(300 BC – 200 AD)
Island universe
The Cosmos is finite and surrounded by an infinite void. It
is in a state of flux, as it pulsates in size and periodically passes through
upheavals and conflagrations.
Aristotelian universe Aristotle (384-322 BC) Geocentric,
static, steady state, finite extent, infinite time Spherical earth is
surrounded by concentric celestial spheres. Universe exists unchanged
throughout eternity. Contains a fifth element, called aether (later known as
quintessence), added to the four Classical elements. Aristarchean universe
Aristarchus(circa 280 BC) Heliocentric Earth rotates daily on its axis and
revolves annually about the sun in a circular orbit. Sphere of fixed stars is
centered about the sun. Seleucian universe Seleucus of Seleucia(circa 190 BC)
Heliocentric Modifications to the Aristarchean universe,
with the inclusion of the tide phenomenon to explain heliocentrism.
Ptolemaic model (based on Aristotelian universe) Ptolemy(2nd
century AD) Geocentric Universe orbits about a stationary Earth. Planets move
in circular epicycles, each having a center that moved in a larger circular
orbit (called an eccentric or a deferent) around a center-point near the Earth.
The use of equants added another level of complexity and allowed astronomers to
predict the positions of the planets.
The most successful universe model of all time, using the
criterion of longevity. Almagest (the Great System).
Aryabhatan model Aryabhata (499) Geocentric or Heliocentric
The Earth rotates and the planets move in elliptical orbits, possibly around
either the Earth or the Sun. It is uncertain whether the model is geocentric or
heliocentric due to planetary orbits given with respect to both the Earth and
the Sun. Abrahamic universe Medieval philosophers (500-1200) Finite in time.
A universe that is finite in time and has a beginning is
proposed by the Christian philosopher, John Philoponus, who argues against the
ancient Greek notion of an infinite past. Logical arguments supporting a finite
universe are developed by the early Muslim philosopher Alkindus, the Jewish
philosopher Saadia Gaon and the Muslim theologianAlgazel.
Multiversal cosmology Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (1149–1209)
Multiverse, multiple worlds & universes There exists an
infinite outer space
beyond the known world, and God has the power to fill the
vacuum with an infinite number of universes.
Maragha models Maragha school(1259–1528) Geocentric Various
modifications to Ptolemaic model and Aristotelian universe, including rejection
ofequant and eccentrics at Maragheh observatory, and introduction of
Tusi-couple by Al-Tusi. Alternative models later proposed, including the first
accurate lunar model by Ibn al-Shatir, a model rejecting stationary Earth in
favour of Earth’s rotation by Ali Kusçu, and planetary model incorporating
“circular inertia” by Al-Birjandi. Nilakanthan model Nilakantha Somayaji
(1444–1544)
Geocentric and Heliocentric A universe in which the planets
orbit the Sun and the Sun orbits the Earth, similar to the later Tychonic
system. Copernican universe Nicolaus Copernicus (1543) Heliocentric The
geocentric Maragha model of Ibn al-Shatir adapted to meet the requirements of
the ancient heliocentric Aristarchean universe in his De revolutionibus orbium
coelestium.
Tychonic system Tycho Brahe(1546–1601) Geocentric and
Heliocentric A universe in which the planets orbit the Sun and the Sun orbits
the Earth, similar to the earlier Nilakanthan model. Static Newtonian Sir Isaac
Newton(1642–1727) Static(evolving), steady state, infinite Every particle in
the universe attracts every other particle. Matter on the large scale is
uniformly distributed. Gravitationally balanced but unstable.
Cartesian Vortex universe René Descartes 17th Century Static
(evolving), steady state, Infinite
A system of huge swirling whirlpools of aethereal or fine
matter produces what we would call gravitational effects. His vacuum was not
empty. All space was filled with matter that swirled around in large and small
vortices.
Hierarchical universe Immanuel Kant,
Johann Lambert 18th century Static (evolving), steady state,
infinite Matter is clustered on ever larger scales of hierarchy. Matter is
endlessly being recycled. Einstein Universe with a cosmological constant Albert
Einstein1917 Static (nominally). Bounded (finite) “Matter without motion.”
Contains uniformly distributed matter. Uniformly curved spherical space; based
on Riemann’s hypersphere. Curvature is set equal to ?. In effect ? is
equivalent to a repulsive force which counteracts gravity. Unstable. De Sitter
universe Willem de Sitter1917 Expanding flat space.
Steady state. ? > 0 “Motion without matter.” Only
apparently static. Based on Einstein’s General Relativity. Space expands with
constant acceleration. Scale factor (radius of universe) increases
exponentially, i.e. constant inflation. MacMillan universe William Duncan
MacMillan 1920s Static &steady state.
New matter is created from radiation. Starlight is
perpetually recycled into new matter particles.
Friedmann universe of spherical space Alexander Friedmann
1922 Spherical expanding space. k= +1 ; no Positive curvature. Curvature constant k =
+1Expands then recollapses. Spatially closed (finite).Friedmann universe of
hyperbolic space Alexander Friedmann 1924 Hyperbolic expanding space.
k= -1 ; no ? Negative curvature. Said to be infinite (but
ambiguous). Unbounded. Expands forever.
Dirac large numbers hypothesis Paul Dirac 1930s Expanding
Demands a large variation in G, which decreases with time. Gravity weakens as
universe evolves.
Friedmann zero-curvature, a.k.a. the Einstein-DeSitter
universe Einstein & DeSitter 1932 Expanding flat space.
k= 0 ; ? = 0 Critical density Curvature constant k = 0. Said
to be infinite (but ambiguous). ‘Unbounded cosmos of limited extent.’ Expands
forever. ‘Simplest’ of all known universes. Named after but not considered by
Friedmann. Has a deceleration term q =½ which means that its expansion rate
slows down.
BIG BANG THEORY = Only One Theory!
The original Big Bang. a.k.a. Friedmann-Lemaître Model Georges
Lemaître1927-29 Expansion? > 0 ? > |Gravity| ? is positive and has a
magnitude greater than Gravity. Universe has initial high density state
(‘primeval atom’). Followed by a two stage expansion. ? is used to destabilize
the universe. (Lemaître is considered to be the father of the big bang
model.)Oscillating universe(a.k.a. Friedmann-Einstein; was latter’s 1st choice
after rejecting his own 1917 model) Favored by Friedmann 1920s Expanding and
contracting in cycles Time is endless and beginningless; thus avoids the
beginning-of-time paradox.
Perpetual cycles of big Bang followed by the big Crunch.
Eddington Arthur Eddington 1930 First Static then Expands Static Einstein 1917
universe with its instability disturbed into expansion mode; with relentless
matter dilution becomes a DeSitter universe.
Dominates gravity.
Milne universe of kinematic relativity Edward Milne, 1933,
1935;William H. McCrea, 1930s Kinematic expansion with NO space expansion
Rejects general relativity and the expanding space paradigm. Gravity not
included as initial assumption. Obeys cosmological principle & rules of
special relativity. The Milne expanding universe consists of a finite spherical
cloud of particles (or galaxies) that expands WITHIN flat space which is
infinite and otherwise empty.
It has a center and a cosmic edge (the surface of the
particle cloud) which expands at light speed. His explanation of gravity was
elaborate and unconvincing. For instance, his universe has an infinite number
of particles, hence infinite mass, within a finite cosmic volume.
Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker class of models Howard
Robertson, Arthur Walker, 1935 Uniformly expanding Class of universes that are
homogenous and isotropic. Spacetime separates into uniformly curved space and
cosmic time common to all co-moving observers. The formulation system is now
known as the FLRW or Robertson-Walker metrics of cosmic time and curved space.
Steady-state expanding (Bondi & Gold) Herman
Bondi,Thomas Gold1948 Expanding, steady state, infinite Matter creation rate
maintains constant density. Continuous creation out of nothing from nowhere.
Exponential expansion.
Deceleration term q = -1.Steady-state expanding (Hoyle) Fred
Hoyle 1948 Expanding, steady state; but unstable Matter creation rate maintains
constant density. But since matter creation rate must be exactly balanced with
the space expansion rate the system is unstable. Ambiplasma Hannes Alfvén1965
Oskar Klein Cellular universe, expanding by means of matter-antimatter
annihilation Based on the concept of plasma cosmology.
The universe is viewed as meta-galaxies divided by double
layers —hence its bubble-like nature. Other universes are formed from other
bubbles. Ongoing cosmic matter-antimatter annihilations keep the bubbles
separated and moving apart preventing them from interacting. Brans-Dicke Carl
H. Brans; Robert H. Dicke Expanding Based on Mach’s principle. G varies with
time as universe expands. “But nobody is quite sure what Mach’s principle
actually means.” ?
Cosmic inflation
Alan Guth 1980 Big Bang with modification to solve horizon
problem and flatness problem. Based on the concept of hot inflation. The
universe is viewed as a multiple quantum flux —hence its bubble-like nature.
Other universes are formed from other bubbles. Ongoing cosmic expansion kept
the bubbles separated and moving apart preventing them from interacting.
Eternal Inflation (a multiple universe model) Andreï Linde 1983 Big Bang with
cosmic inflation
A multiverse, based on the concept of cold inflation, in which
inflationary events occur at random each with independent initial conditions;
some expand into bubble universes supposedly like our entire cosmos.
Bubbles nucleate in a spacetime foam.
Physical cosmology, as a branch of astronomy, is the study
of the largest-scale structures and dynamics of the universe and is concerned
with fundamental questions about its formation and evolution. For most of human
history, it was a branch of metaphysics and religion.
Cosmology
Cosmology considered an actual science originated with the
Copernican principle, which implies that celestial bodies obey identical
physical laws to those on Earth, and Newtonian mechanics, which first allowed
us to understand those laws. Physical cosmology, as it is now understood, began
with the twentieth century development of Albert Einstein’s general theory of
relativity and better astronomical observations of extremely distant objects.
These advances made it possible to speculate about the origin of the universe,
and allowed scientists to establish the Big Bang Theory as the leading
cosmological model. Some researchers still advocate a handful of alternative
cosmologies; however, cosmologists generally agree that the Big Bang theory
best explains observations.
Cosmology draws heavily on the work of many disparate areas
of research in physics. Areas relevant to cosmology include particle physics
experiments and theory, including string theory, astrophysics, general
relativity, and plasma physics. Thus, cosmology unites the physics of the
largest structures in the universe with the physics of the smallest structures
in the universe. Universal Disciplines In recent times, physics and
astrophysics have played a central role in shaping the understanding of the
universe through scientific observation and experiment. What is known as
physical cosmology shaped through both mathematics and observation the analysis
of the whole universe. It is generally understood to begin with the Big Bang
combined with cosmic inflation – an expansion of space from which the universe
is thought to have emerged ~13.7±0.2×109 (roughly 13.5-13.9 billion) years ago.
Physical cosmologists propose that the history of the
universe has been governed entirely by physical laws. Such theories of an
impersonal universe governed by physical laws were first proposed by Roger
Bacon.
Between the domains of religion and science, stands the
philosophical perspective of metaphysical cosmology. This ancient field of
study seeks to draw intuitive conclusions about the nature of the universe,
man, a supernatural creator and/or their relationships based on the extension
of some set of presumed facts borrowed from spiritual experience and/or
observation.
Metaphysical Cosmology
Metaphysical cosmology has also been described as the placing
of man in the universe in relationship to all other entities. This is exampled
by the observation made by Marcus Aurelius of a man’s place in that
relationship: “He who does not know what the world is does not know where he
is, and he who does not know for what purpose the world exists, does not know
who he is, nor what the world is.”
Cosmology is often an important aspect of the creation myths
of religions that seek to explain the existence and nature of reality. In some
cases, views about the creation (cosmogony) and destruction (eschatology) of
the universe play a central role in shaping a framework of religious cosmology
for understanding humanity’s role in the universe.
A more contemporary distinction between religion and
philosophy, esoteric cosmology is distinguished from religion in its less
tradition-bound construction and reliance on modern “intellectual
understanding” rather than faith, and from philosophy in its emphasis on
spirituality as a formative concept.
History of Physical
Cosmology. See also: Timeline of cosmology and List of cosmologists.
Modern cosmology developed along tandem tracks of theory and
observation. In 1915, Albert Einstein formulated his theory of general
relativity, which provided a unified description of gravity as a geometric
property of space and time. At the time, physicists believed in a perfectly
static universe that had no beginning or end. Einstein added a cosmological
constant to his theory in order to force it to model a static universe
containing matter. This so-called Einstein universe is, however, unstable; it
will eventually start expanding or contracting. The cosmological solutions of
general relativity were found by Alexander Friedmann, whose equations describe
the Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker universe, which may expand or contract.
In the 1910s, Vesto Slipher (and later Carl Wilhelm Wirtz)
interpreted the red shift of spiral nebulae as a Doppler shift that indicated
they were receding from Earth. However, it is difficult to determine the
distance to astronomical objects. One way is to compare the physical size of an
object to its angular size, but a physical size must be assumed to do this.
Another method is to measure the brightness of an object and
assume an intrinsic luminosity, from which the distance may be determined using
the inverse square law.
Due to the difficulty of using these methods, they did not
realize that the nebulae were actually galaxies outside our own Milky Way, nor
did they speculate about the cosmological implications.
In 1927, the Belgian Roman Catholic priest Georges Lemaître
independently derived the Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker equations and
proposed, on the basis of the recession of spiral nebulae, that the universe
began with the “explosion” of a “primeval atom”—which was later called the Big
Bang.
In 1929, Edwin Hubble provided an observational basis for
Lemaître’s theory. Hubble showed that the spiral nebulae were galaxies by
determining their distances using measurements of the brightness of Cepheid
variable stars. He discovered a relationship between the redshift of a galaxy
and its distance. He interpreted this as evidence that the galaxies are receding
from Earth in every direction at speeds directly proportional to their
distance. This fact is now known as Hubble’s law, though the numerical factor
Hubble found relating recessional velocity and distance was off by a factor of
ten, due to not knowing at the time about different types of Cepheid variables.
Given the cosmological principle, Hubble’s law suggested
that the universe was expanding. There were two primary explanations put forth
for the expansion of the universe. One was Lemaître’s Big Bang theory,
advocated and developed by George Gamow. The other possibility was Fred Hoyle’s
steady state model in which new matter would be created as the galaxies moved
away from each other. In this model, the universe is roughly the same at any
point in time.
For a number of years the support for these theories was
evenly divided.
However, the observational evidence began to support the
idea that the universe evolved from a hot dense state. The discovery of the
cosmic microwave background in 1965 lent strong support to the Big Bang model,
and since the precise measurements of the cosmic microwave background by the
Cosmic Background Explorer in the early 1990s, few cosmologists have seriously
proposed other theories of the origin and evolution of the cosmos.
One consequence of this is that in standard general
relativity, the universe began with a singularity, as demonstrated by Stephen
Hawking and Roger Penrose in the 1960s.?
Light elements, primarily hydrogen and helium, were created
in the Big Bang.
These light elements were spread too fast and too thinly in
the Big Bang process (see nucleosynthesis) to form the most stable medium-sized
atomic nuclei, like iron and nickel. This fact allows for later energy release,
as such intermediate-sized elements are formed in our era.
The formation of such atoms powers the steady
energy-releasing reactions in stars, and also contributes to sudden energy
releases, such as in novae. Gravitational collapse of matter into black holes
is also thought to power the most energetic processes, generally seen at the
centers of galaxies (see quasars and in general active galaxies).Cosmologists
are still unable to explain all cosmological phenomena purely on the basis of
known conventional forms of energy, for example those related to the
accelerating expansion of the universe, and therefore invoke a yet unexplored
form of energy called dark energy to account for certain cosmological
observations.
One hypothesis is that dark energy is the energy of virtual
particles (which mathematically must exist in vacuum due to the uncertainty
principle).There is no unambiguous way to define the total energy of the
universe in the current best theory of gravity, general relativity. As a result
it remains controversial whether one can meaningfully say that total energy is
conserved in an expanding universe.
For instance, each photon that travels through intergalactic
space loses energy due to the redshift effect. This energy is not obviously
transferred to any other system, so seems to be permanently lost. Nevertheless
some cosmologists insist that energy is conserved in some sense.
Thermodynamics of the universe is a field of study to
explore which form of energy dominates the cosmos – relativistic particles
which are referred to as radiation, or non-relativistic particles which are
referred to as matter. The former are particles whose rest mass is zero or
negligible compared to their energy, and therefore move at the speed of light
or very close to it; the latter are particles whose kinetic energy is much
lower than their rest mass and therefore move much slower than the speed of
light.
As the universe expands, both matter and radiation in it
become diluted. However, the universe also cools down, meaning that the average
energy per particle is getting smaller with time. Therefore the radiation
becomes weaker, and dilutes faster than matter. Thus with the expansion of the
universe radiation becomes less dominant than matter. In the very early
universe radiation dictates the rate of deceleration of the universe’s
expansion, and the universe is said to be ‘radiation dominated’.
At later times, when the average energy per photon is
roughly 10 eV and lower, matter dictates the rate of deceleration and the
universe is said to be ‘matter dominated’. The intermediate case is not treated
well analytically. As the expansion of the universe continues, matter dilutes
even further and the cosmological constant becomes dominant, leading to an
acceleration in the universe’s expansion. History of the Universe.
See also: Timeline of the Big Bang
The history of the universe is a central issue in cosmology.
The history of the universe is divided into different periods called epochs,
according to the dominant forces and processes in each period. The standard
cosmological model is known as the CDM model??
CDM Model.
CDM model, Equations of motion
Main article: Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker metric.
The equations of motion governing the universe as a whole
are derived from general relativity with a small, positive cosmological
constant.
The solution is an expanding universe; due to this expansion
the radiation and matter in the universe are cooled down and become diluted. At
first, the expansion is slowed down by gravitation due to the radiation and
matter content of the universe. However, as these become diluted, the
cosmological constant becomes more dominant and the expansion of the universe
starts to accelerate rather than decelerate. In our universe this has already
happened, billions of years ago.
Particle physics in cosmology
Particle physics is important to the behavior of the early
universe, since the early universe was so hot that the average energy density
was very high. Because of this, scattering processes and decay of unstable
particles are important in cosmology.
As a rule of thumb, a scattering or a decay process is
cosmologically important in a certain cosmological epoch if the time scale
describing that process is smaller or comparable to the time scale of the
expansion of the universe, which is 1 / H with H being the Hubble constant at
that time. This is roughly equal to the age of the universe at that time.
Big Bang Timeline
Timeline of the Big Bang
Observations suggest that the universe began around 13.7
billion years ago. Since then, the evolution of the universe has passed through
three phases. The very early universe, which is still poorly understood, was
the split second in which the universe was so hot that particles had energies
higher than those currently accessible in particle accelerators on Earth.
Therefore, while the basic features of this epoch have been
worked out in the Big Bang theory, the details are largely based on educated
guesses. Following this, in the early universe, the evolution of the universe
proceeded according to known high energy physics.
This is when the first protons, electrons and neutrons
formed, then nuclei and finally atoms. With the formation of neutral hydrogen,
the cosmic microwave background was emitted. Finally, the epoch of structure
formation began, when matter started to aggregate into the first stars and
quasars, and ultimately galaxies, clusters of galaxies and superclusters
formed. The future of the universe is not yet firmly known, but according to
the CDM model it will continue expanding forever. ?
Areas of study
Below, some of the most active areas of inquiry in cosmology
are described, in roughly chronological order. This does not include all of the
Big Bang cosmology, which is presented in Timeline of the Big Bang. The very
early universe.
While the early, hot universe appears to be well explained
by the Big Bang from roughly 10-33 seconds onwards, there are several problems.
One is that there is no compelling reason, using current particle physics, to
expect the universe to be flat, homogeneous and isotropic (see the cosmological
principle). Moreover, grand unified theories of particle physics suggest that
there should be magnetic monopoles in the universe, which have not been found.
These problems are resolved by a brief period of cosmic
inflation, which drives the universe to flatness, smooths out anisotropies and
in homogeneities to the observed level, and exponentially dilutes the
monopoles.
The physical model behind cosmic inflation is extremely
simple, however it has not yet been confirmed by particle physics, and there
are difficult problems reconciling inflation and quantum field theory. Some
cosmologists think that string theory and brane cosmology will provide an
alternative to inflation.
Another major problem in cosmology is what caused the
universe to contain more particles than antiparticles. Cosmologists can
observationally deduce that the universe is not split into regions of matter
and antimatter. If it were, there would be X-rays and gamma rays produced as a
result of annihilation, but this is not observed. This problem is called the
baryon asymmetry, and the theory to describe the resolution is called
baryogenesis.
The theory of baryogenesis was worked out by Andrei Sakharov
in 1967, and requires a violation of the particle physics symmetry, called CP-symmetry,
between matter and antimatter. Particle accelerators, however, measure too
small a violation of CP-symmetry to account for the baryon asymmetry.
Cosmologists and particle physicists are trying to find additional violations
of the CP-symmetry in the early universe that might account for the baryon
asymmetry.
Both the problems of baryogenesis and cosmic inflation are
very closely related to particle physics, and their resolution might come from
high energy theory and experiment, rather than through observations of the
universe.
Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
Big Bang Nucleosynthesis is the theory of the formation of
the elements in the early universe.It finished when the universe was about
three minutes old and its temperature dropped below that at which nuclear
fusion could occur. Big Bang nucleosynthesis had a brief period during which it
could operate, so only the very lightest elements were produced. Starting from
hydrogen ions (protons), it principally produced
deuterium, helium-4 and lithium. Other elements were
produced in only trace abundances. The basic theory of nucleosynthesis was
developed in 1948 by George Gamow, Ralph Asher Alpher and Robert Herman. It was
used for many years as a probe of physics at the time of the Big Bang, as the
theory of Big Bang nucleosynthesis connects the abundances of primordial light
elements with the features of the early universe. Specifically, it can be used
to test the equivalence principle, to probe dark matter, and test neutrino
physics. Some cosmologists have proposed that Big Bang nucleosynthesis suggests
there is a fourth “sterile” species of neutrino.
Cosmic Microwave Background
The cosmic microwave background is radiation left over from
decoupling after the epoch of recombination when neutral atoms first formed. At
this point, radiation produced in the Big Bang stopped Thomson scattering from
charged ions. The radiation, first observed in 1965 by Arno Penzias and Robert
Woodrow Wilson, has a perfect thermal black-body spectrum. It has a temperature
of 2.7 kelvins today and is isotropic to one part in 105. Cosmological
perturbation theory, which describes the evolution of slight inhomogeneities in
the early universe, has allowed cosmologists to precisely calculate the angular
power spectrum of the radiation, and it has been measured by the recent
satellite experiments (COBE and WMAP) and many ground and balloon-based
experiments (such as Degree Angular Scale Interferometer, Cosmic Background
Imager, and Boomerang).
One of the goals of these efforts is to measure the basic
parameters of the Lambda-CDM model with increasing accuracy, as well as to test
the predictions of the Big Bang model and look for new physics. The recent
measurements made by WMAP, for example, have placed limits on the neutrino
masses.
NEWER
Newer experiments, such as QUIET and the Atacama Cosmology
Telescope, are trying to measure the polarization of the cosmic microwave
background. These measurements are expected to provide further confirmation of
the theory as well as information about cosmic inflation, and the so-called
secondary anisotropies, such as the Sunyaev-Zel’dovich effect and Sachs-Wolfe
effect, which are caused by interaction between galaxies and clusters with the
cosmic microwave background.
Formation and evolution of large-scale structure
Main articles: Large-scale structure of the cosmos,
Structure formation, and Galaxy formation and evolution
Understanding the formation and evolution of the largest and
earliest structures (i.e., quasars, galaxies, clusters and superclusters) is
one of the largest efforts in cosmology. Cosmologists study a model of
hierarchical structure formation in which structures form from the bottom up,
with smaller objects forming first, while the largest objects, such as
superclusters, are still assembling. One way to study structure in the universe
is to survey the visible galaxies, in order to construct a three-dimensional
picture of the galaxies in the universe and measure the matter power spectrum.
This is the approach of the Sloan Digital Sky Survey and the 2dF Galaxy
Redshift Survey.
Another tool for understanding structure formation is
simulations, which cosmologists use to study the gravitational aggregation of
matter in the universe, as it clusters into filaments, superclusters and voids.
Most simulations contain only non-baryonic cold dark matter, which should
suffice to understand the universe on the largest scales, as there is much more
dark matter in the universe than visible, baryonic matter. More advanced
simulations are starting to include baryons and study the formation of
individual galaxies. Cosmologists study these simulations to see if they agree
with the galaxy surveys, and to understand any discrepancy.
Other, complementary observations to measure the
distribution of matter in the distant universe and to probe reionization
include:
The Lyman alpha forest, which allows cosmologists to measure
the distribution of neutral atomic hydrogen gas in the early universe, by
measuring the absorption of light from distant quasars by the gas.
The 21 centimeter absorption line of neutral atomic hydrogen
also provides a sensitive test of cosmology.
Weak lensing, the distortion of a distant image by
gravitational lensing due to dark matter.
These will help cosmologists settle the question of when and
how structure formed in the universe.
Dark Matter
Evidence from Big Bang nucleosynthesis, the cosmic microwave
background and structure formation suggests that about 23% of the mass of the
universe consists of non-baryonic dark matter, whereas only 4% consists of
visible, baryonic matter. The gravitational effects of dark matter are well
understood, as it behaves like a cold, non-radiative fluid that forms haloes
around galaxies. Dark matter has never been detected in the laboratory, and the
particle physics nature of dark matter remains completely unknown. Without
observational constraints, there are a number of candidates, such as a stable
supersymmetric particle, a weakly interacting massive particle, an axion, and a
massive compact halo object. Alternatives to the dark matter hypothesis include
a modification of gravity at small accelerations (MOND) or an effect from brane
cosmology.
Dark Energy
If the universe is flat, there must be an additional
component making up 73% (in addition to the 23% dark matter and 4% baryons) of
the energy density of the universe. This is called dark energy. In order not to
interfere with Big Bang nucleosynthesis and the cosmic microwave background, it
must not cluster in haloes like baryons and dark matter. There is strong
observational evidence for dark energy, as the total energy density of the
universe is known through constraints on the flatness of the universe, but the
amount of clustering matter is tightly measured, and is much less than this.
The case for dark energy was strengthened in 1999, when measurements
demonstrated that the expansion of the universe has begun to gradually
accelerate.
Apart from its density and its clustering properties,
nothing is known about dark energy. Quantum field theory predicts a
cosmological constant much like dark energy, but 120 orders of magnitude larger
than that observed. Steven Weinberg and a number of string theorists (see
string landscape) have used this as evidence for the anthropic principle, which
suggests that the cosmological constant is so small because life (and thus
physicists, to make observations) cannot exist in a universe with a large cosmological
constant, but many people find this an unsatisfying explanation.
Other possible explanations for dark energy include
quintessence or a modification of gravity on the largest scales. The effect on
cosmology of the dark energy that these models describe is given by the dark
energy’s equation of state, which varies depending upon the theory. The nature
of dark energy is one of the most challenging problems in cosmology.
A better understanding of dark energy is likely to solve the
problem of the ultimate fate of the universe. In the current cosmological
epoch, the accelerated expansion due to dark energy is preventing structures
larger than superclusters from forming. It is not known whether the
acceleration will continue indefinitely, perhaps even increasing until a big
rip, or whether it will eventually reverse.
Other areas of inquiry
Cosmologists also study:
Whether primordial black holes were formed in our universe,
and what happened to them.
The GZK cutoff for high-energy cosmic rays, and whether it
signals a failure of special relativity at high energies the equivalence
principle, whether or not Einstein’s general theory of relativity is the
correct theory of gravitation, and if the fundamental laws of physics are the
same everywhere in the universe.
See Also:
Physics portal String cosmology
Physical Ontology List of Cosmologists
References:
For an overview, see George FR Ellis (2006). “Issues in the
Philosophy of Cosmology”. In Jeremy Butterfield & John Earman. Philosophy
of Physics (Handbook of the Philosophy of Science) 3 volume set. North Holland.
pp. 1183ff. arXiv:astro-ph/0602280. ISBN 0444515607.^ Science 20 June 2003:Vol.
300. no. 5627, pp. 1914 – 1918 Throwing Light on Dark Energy, Robert P.
Kirshner. Accessed December 2006^ e.g. Liddle, A.. An Introduction to Modern
Cosmology. Wiley. ISBN 0-470-84835-9. This argues cogently “Energy is always,
always, always conserved.”^ P. Ojeda and H. Rosu (Jun 2006). “Supersymmetry of
FRW barotropic cosmologies”. Internat. J. Theoret. Phys. (Springer) 45:
1191–1196.arXiv:gr-qc/0510004. Bibcode 2006IJTP…45.1152R.
doi:10.1007/s10773-006-9123-2.
Further Reading:
Popular-
Brian Greene (2005). The Fabric of the Cosmos. Penguin Books
Ltd. ISBN 0-14-101111-4.Alan Guth (1997). The Inflationary Universe: The Quest
for a New Theory of Cosmic Origins. Random House. ISBN 0-224-04448-6.Hawking,
Stephen W. (1988). A Brief History of Time: From the Big Bang to Black Holes.
Bantam Books, Inc. ISBN 0-553-38016-8.Hawking, Stephen W. (2001). The Universe
in a Nutshell. Bantam Books, Inc. ISBN 0-553-80202-X.Simon Singh (2005).
Big Bang: the origins of the universe. Fourth Estate. ISBN
0-00-716221-9.Steven Weinberg (1993; 1978). The First Three Minutes. Basic
Books. ISBN 0-465-02437-8.clic model Paul Steinhardt;
Neil Turok 2002 Expanding and contracting in cycles; M
theory. Two parallel orbifold planes or M-branes collide periodically in a
higher dimensional space. With quintessence or dark energy
Cyclic model Lauris Baum;
Paul Frampton 2007 Solution ofTolman’s entropy problem
Phantom dark energy fragments universe into large number of disconnected
patches. Our patch contracts containing only dark energy with zero entropy.
Table notes: the term “static” simply means not expanding and not contracting.
Symbol G represents Newton’s gravitational constant;
(Lambda) is the cosmological constant.
Physical Cosmology
Physical cosmology is the branch of physics and astrophysics
that deals with the study of the physical origins and evolution of the
Universe. It also includes the study of the nature of the Universe on its very
largest scales. In its earliest form it was what is now known as celestial
mechanics, the study of the heavens.
The Greek philosophers Aristarchus of Samos, Aristotle and
Ptolemy proposed different cosmological theories. In particular, the geocentric
Ptolemaic system was the accepted theory to explain the motion of the heavens
until Nicolaus Copernicus, and subsequently Johannes Kepler and Galileo Galilei
proposed a heliocentric system in the 16th century. This is known as one of the
most famous examples of epistemological rupture in physical cosmology.
With Isaac Newton and the 1687 publication of Principia
Mathematica, the problem of the motion of the heavens was finally solved.
Newton provided a physical mechanism for Kepler’s laws and his law of universal
gravitation allowed the anomalies in previous systems, caused by gravitational
interaction between the planets, to be resolved. A fundamental difference
between Newton’s cosmology and those preceding it was the Copernican principle
that the bodies on earth obey the same physical laws as all the celestial
bodies. This was a crucial philosophical advance in physical cosmology.
Modern Scientific Cosmology
Modern scientific cosmology is usually considered to have
begun in 1917 with Albert Einstein’s publication of his final modification of
general relativity in the paper “Cosmological Considerations of the General
Theory of Relativity,” (although this paper was not widely available outside of
Germany until the end of World War I). General relativity prompted cosmogonists
such as Willem de Sitter, Karl Schwarzschild and Arthur Eddington to explore
the astronomical consequences of the theory, which enhanced the growing ability
of astronomers to study very distant objects. Prior to this (and for some time
afterwards), physicists assumed that the Universe was static and unchanging.
In parallel to this dynamic approach to cosmology, one
long-standing debate about the structure of the cosmos was coming to a climax.
Mount Wilson astronomer Harlow Shapley championed the model of a cosmos made up
of the Milky Way star system only ; while Heber D. Curtis argued for the idea
that spiral nebulae were star systems in their own right – island universes.
This difference of ideas came to a climax with the organization of the Great
Debate at the meeting of the (US) National Academy of Sciences in Washington on
26 April 1920.
The resolution of this debate came with the detection of
novae in the Andromeda galaxy by Edwin Hubble in 1923 and 1924. Their distance
established spiral nebulae well beyond the edge of the Milky Way and has
galaxies of their own.
Subsequent modeling of the universe explored the possibility
that the cosmological constant introduced by Einstein in his 1917 paper may
result in an expanding universe, depending on its value. Thus the big bang
model was proposed by the Belgian priest Georges Lemaître in 1927 which was
subsequently corroborated by Edwin Hubble’s discovery of the red shift in 1929
and later by the discovery of the cosmic microwave background radiation by Arno
Penzias and Robert Woodrow Wilson in 1964. These findings were a first step to
rule out some of many alternative physical cosmologies.
Recent observations made by the COBE and WMAP satellites
observing this background radiation have effectively, in many scientists’ eyes,
transformed cosmology from a highly speculative science into a predictive
science, as these observations matched predictions made by a theory called
Cosmic inflation, which is a modification of the standard big bang model.
“This has led many to refer to modern times as the “Golden age of
cosmology.” “(Source: Wikipedia)
Further reading
History of First Corporation that changed the way we now do
business in the world:
The alleged oldest commercial corporation in the world,
the Stora Kopparberg mining community in Falun, Sweden,
obtained a
Charter from King Magnus Eriksson in 1347. Many European
nations
chartered corporations to lead colonial ventures, such as
the
Dutch East India Company or the Hudson’s Bay Company, and
these corporations came to play a large part in the history of corporate
colonialism.
Popular Books
Brian Greene (2005). The Fabric of the Cosmos. Penguin Books
Ltd. ISBN 0-14-101111-4.Alan Guth (1997). The Inflationary Universe: The Quest
for a New Theory of Cosmic Origins. Random House. ISBN 0-224-04448-6.Hawking,
Stephen W. (1988). A Brief History of Time: From the Big Bang to Black Holes.
Bantam Books, Inc. ISBN 0-553-38016-8.Hawking, Stephen W. (2001). The Universe
in a Nutshell. Bantam Books, Inc. ISBN 0-553-80202-X.Simon Singh (2005). Big
Bang: the origins of the universe. Fourth Estate. ISBN 0-00-716221-9.Steven
Weinberg (1993; 1978). The First Three Minutes. Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-02437-8
See also:
Astronomy portal Absolute time and space
Astrology
Astronomy List of astrophysicists
Non-standard cosmology
TaijiTaoMahapurana (Jainism)From Wikipedia, the free
encyclopedia
Mahapurana is a major Jain text composed largely by Acharya
Jinasena during the rule of Rashtrakuta ruler Amoghavarshaand completed by his
pupil Gunabhadra in the 9th century CE. The section composed by Gunabhadra is
called “Uttarapurana”.
The completed and edited text was released by Lokasena,
pupil of Gunabhadra in a celebration at Bankapura in the court of
Vira-Bankeyarasa in 898 CE. The first 42 Parvans of this text were written by
Jinasena, while remaining 34 Parvans were composed by Gunabhara.
This text gives an encyclopedic account of the Jain
tradition.
—————-The text is widely quoted. A widely used quote from
Carl Sagan’s Cosmos, page 140 is:
“Some foolish men declare that Creator made the world. The
doctrine that the world was created is ill-advised, and should be rejected. If
god created the world, where was he before creation? If you say he was
transcendent then, and needed no support, where is he now?”,
A number of Jain and non-Jain texts have been influenced by
the Mahapurana. Mahapurana was the model for Saiva SiddhantaPeriyapuranam which
gives biographies of the sixty-three individuals.
Extraterrestrial Intelligence Summit – Earth Tectonic
Economics
We have Current Tectonic Plates on Earth that will share in
the future Geographic Power Status.
In Global Tectonic Economics, those who are extraterrestrial
in origin share their “Bird’s Eye View from Above on how to govern the planet
while in the Working Class Planet Status.”
The Seven Major Powers on Earth will share in deciding who
the Global Commerce Trade Agents shall be for the future Extraterrestrial
Intelligence Summit (EIS).
We shall use the “Current Tectonic Plates in Tectonic
Economics.”
The Future Global Powers will be recognized as those who
control the Economics based on their Tectonic Plate Control Power. As Above So
Below…
UNITED NATIONS SECURITY COUNCIL
At present China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and
the United States are sometimes referred to as great powers, although there is
no unanimous agreement among authorities as to the current status of these
powers or what precisely defines a “great” power.
These five nations are the only states to have permanent
seats on the UN Security Council. They are also the recognized “Nuclear Weapons
States” under the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. Sources have at times
referred to China, France, and the UK[ as “middle powers”. In addition, despite
the lack of a permanent seat at the UN Security Council, Germany and Japan are
occasionally considered to be great powers, although Germany and Japan are
referred to by others as middle powers or economic great powers.
After the dissolution of the Soviet Union, its UN Security
Council permanent seat was transferred to the Russian Federation in 1991, as
its successor state. The newly-formed Russian Federation emerged on the level
of a great power, leaving the United States as the only remaining global
superpower (although some support a multipolar world view).
With continuing European integration, the European Union is
increasingly being seen as a great power in its own right, most notably in
areas where it has exclusive competence (i.e. economic affairs), and with
representation at the WTO and at G8 and G-20 summits. The European Union,
however, is not a sovereign state and has limited scope in the areas of foreign
affairs and defense policy, which remain with the union’s member states, which
include great powers France, Germany and the United Kingdom.
TECTONIC PLATES – Dealing in the Future Tectonic Economics
of Earth
JOINT CHIEFS OF STAFF (7) – Seven Main Tectonic Plates
Representatives
Tectonic Economics will have Seven Major Upper Echelons for
the Directors of the Chief Agents who will share in the Global Summit of
Tectonic Economics with the entire list of plates including the Secondary and
Tertiary plates for future reference and administration for Global Trade and
Commerce.
China, France, Russia, United Kingdom , Untied States
(5) -POWERS
Great powers (with Security Council vetoes): China, France,
Russia, United Kingdom and United States. Great powers without Security Council
vetoes: Germany and Japan.
(2) Germany and Japan
EXECUTIVE ADMINISTRATORS (8) – The Second Eight in Command are
the Administrators who answer directly to the Seven Major Directors as the
Joint Chiefs in Command of the Global Trade and Commerce.
TECTONIC PLATES ECONOMIC CONGRESS (60)
This is a list of tectonic plates on Earth. Tectonic plates
are pieces of the Earth’s crust and uppermost mantle, together referred to as
the lithosphere.
The plates are around 100 km (60 miles) thick and consist of
two principal types of material: oceanic crust (also called sima fromsilicon
and magnesium) and continental crust (sial from silicon and aluminium).
The composition of the two types of crust differs markedly,
with basaltic rocks (“mafic”) dominating oceanic crust, while continental crust
consists principally of lower density granitic rocks (“felsic”).
Primary plates
These seven plates comprise the bulk of the seven continents
and the Pacific Ocean.
African Plate
Antarctic Plate
Eurasian Plate
Indo-Australian Plate
North American Plate
Pacific Plate
South American Plate
Secondary plates
These smaller plates are generally shown on major plate
maps, but with the exception of the Arabian and Indian plates do not comprise
significant land area.
Arabian Plate
Caribbean Plate
Cocos Plate
Indian Plate
Juan de Fuca Plate
Nazca Plate
Philippine Sea Plate
Scotia Plate?
Tertiary plates
Tertiary plates are grouped with the major plate that they
would otherwise be shown as part of on a major plate map. Mostly these are tiny
micro plates.
An exception is in the case of the Nubian-Somalian and
Australian-Capricorn-Indian plates these are major plates that are rifting
apart.
Some models identify more minor plates within current
orogens like the Apulian, Explorer, Gorda, and Philippine Mobile Belt plates.
The remainder of the tertiary plates are the dwindling
remains of much larger ancient plates.
There may or may not be scientific consensus as to whether a
tertiary plate is a separate plate yet, is still a separate plate, or should be
considered a separate plate, thus new research could change this list below:
African Plate
Madagascar Plate
Nubian Plate
Seychelles Plate
Somali Plate
Antarctic Plate
Kerguelen microcontinent
Shetland Plate
South Sandwich Plate
Caribbean Plate
Panama Plate
Gonâve Microplate
Cocos Plate
Rivera Plate
Eurasian Plate
Adriatic or Apulian Plate
Aegean Sea Plate (or Hellenic Plate)
Amurian Plate
Anatolian Plate
Banda Sea Plate
Burma Plate
Iberian Plate
Iranian Plate
Molucca Sea Plate
Halmahera Plate
Sangihe Plate
Okinawa Plate
Pelso Plate
Sunda Plate
Timor Plate
Tisza Plate
Yangtze Plate
Indo-Australian Plate
Australian Plate
Capricorn Plate
Futuna Plate
Indian Plate
Kermadec Plate
Maoke Plate
Niuafo’ou Plate
Sri Lanka Plate
Tonga Plate
Woodlark Plate
Juan de Fuca Plate
Explorer Plate
Gorda Plate
North American Plate
Greenland Plate
Okhotsk Plate
Pacific Plate
Balmoral Reef Plate
Bird’s Head Plate
Caroline Plate
Conway Reef Plate
Easter Plate
Galapagos Plate
Juan Fernandez Plate
Kula Plate
Manus Plate
New Hebrides Plate
North Bismarck Plate
North Galapagos MicroPlate
Solomon Sea Plate
South Bismarck Plate
Philippine Sea Plate
Mariana Plate
Philippine Microplate
South American Plate
Altiplano Plate
Falklands Microplate
North Andes Plate
ANCIENT HISTORY OF PLATES
HISTORY:
In the history of Earth many tectonic plates have come into
existence and have over the intervening years either accreted onto other plates
to form larger plates, rifted into smaller plates, or have been crushed by or
subducted under other plates (or have done all three).
Ancient supercontinents
A supercontinent is a landmass consisting of multiple
continental cores. The following list includes the supercontinents known or
speculated to have existed in the Earth’s past:
Columbia
Euramerica
Gondwana
Kenorland
Laurasia
Nena
Pangaea
Pannotia
Proto-Gondwana
Proto-Laurasia
Rodinia
Ur
Vaalbara
Even though the book: The Economics of World War II lists 7
great powers at the start of 1939 (the British Empire, the Empire of Japan,
France, the Kingdom of Italy, Nazi Germany, the Soviet Union and the United
States) This book focuses only on 6 of the 7 great powers that fought during
World War II. This is because France surrendered shortly after the war began.
The 1956 Suez Crisis suggested that the United Kingdom,
financially weakened by two world wars, could not then pursue its foreign
policyobjectives on an equal footing with the new superpowers without
sacrificing convertibility of its reserve currency as a central goal of policy.
– from superpower cited by Adam Klug and Gregor W. Smith, ‘Suez and Sterling’,
Explorations in Economic History, Vol. 36, No. 3 (July 1999), pp. 181–203.
^ Germany is presented by Chancellor Angela Merkel, former
president Johannes Rau, and leading media of the country, as a “middle”
political power in Europe.
Robert Birnbaum. ”Porträt: Angela Merkel” (in German).
Tagesspiegel online. Retrieved 2007-01-31. “Weichenstellungen in der Außen– und
ihrem Unterkapitel, der Sicherheitspolitik sind zugleich von großer Bedeutung
für die Zukunft der Mittelmacht Deutschland
The fall of the Berlin wall and the breakup of the Soviet
Union left the United States as the only remaining superpower in the 90?s.
”The prime minister of Canada (during the Treaty of
Versailles) said that there were “only three major powers left in the world the
United States, Britain and Japan” … (but) The Great Powers could not be
consistent. At the instance of Britain, Japan’s ally, they gave Japan five
delegates to the Peace Conference, just like themselves, but in the Supreme
Council the Japanese were generally ignored or treated as something of a joke.”
from MacMillan, Margaret (2003). Paris 1919. United States of America: Random
House Trade. p. 306. ISBN 0-375-76052-0
After the Statute of
Westminster came into effect in 1931 the United Kingdom no longer represented
the British Empire in world affairs.
UBS Investment Research Tectonic Economics Long-term
currency fundamentals
The Aim
The aim of this note is to offer perspectives on likely
trends in foreign exchange markets in the coming decade. We begin with a review
of prevailing currency valuations for developed and developing economies. We
then incorporate additional factors that ought to determine currency trends
over the medium term.
Major misalignments
Currency misalignment today is significant and is a
manifestation of still-large imbalances in the world economy. The unwinding of
these misalignments suggests considerable exchange adjustments over the next
decade.
Developed economy exchange rates are over-valued
Valuations based on relative prices suggest that most
developed economy exchange rates are over-valued, most notably in Europe. Other
considerations, such as balance sheet fundamentals and trend growth rates also
suggest that developed economy real exchange rates are relatively high and will
lose value over the coming years.
China’s re-balancing potential
Most Asian exchange rates remain under-valued, including the
Chinese renminbi. When combined with the potential to harness high domestic
savings and boost domestic demand, we believe the renminbi could appreciate
significantly over the next decade. Other Asian currencies in a similar albeit
less extreme position include those of India, Indonesia and Thailand.
More Articles by Author on www.UFODigest.com
Aliens and UFOS – TAKEN DOWN – Natural and Manmade Caves –
Sub-Global TerrainsReligious Tolerance Requested – Extraterrestrial UFO Nuclear
PoweredAlien ET Contact Experiences Lifetime Sustainabilities – We Are Not
Alone!Tectonic Economics – 8.9 Earthquake and 500 mph Tsunami hit Japan –
Friday, March 11, 2012Hell On Earth Or Heaven Is Here Beginning The Alien Vs ET
Controversy
Authors Biography
Theresa Janette Thurmond Morris is an Author/Entrepreneur.
TJ specializes in paranormal/super natural phenomenon. TJ was a professional
consultant and expert witness on legal investigations and has prior military
and government service in the USA 1980-1993. Professionally she uses her
initials TJ. TJ has written several paranormal books including Ascension Age
2012 & Beyond, Alien UFO Story by TJ, Avatar Oracle Xeno Guide, Roswell
Connection, Roswell UFO Encounters, UFOS & Extraterrestrials, and Uplifting
the Soul. All books are in print available. TJ shares her life with TJ Morris
& Friends and is an Ambassador of Goodwill with American Culture
International Relations and ACIR. TJ Morris is her trademark ACIR her service
mark.
TJ also edits books for her friends and publishes books such
as mysteries and paranormal romance. Professional History in corporate
international marketing, manufacturing, legal investigations, newspaper
columnist, and magazine publisher. TJ lives in Kentucky USA with husband who is
also an author. TJ is a speaker, spiritual consultant, producer, publisher. TJ
spends much of her time assisting others as a consultant in business and with
building websites. TJ’s are ACIR.us, AmericanNewsMagazine.com, TJMorris.org,
ETSpirit.org, ASCENSIONcenter.org, and many others as media online press
including TimelyManorBooks.com. Tj’s books available on Amazon and Lulu under
Theresa J Morris and TJ Thurmond Morris. TJ has been interested in the Alien ET
UFO Community all her life with a strong research history in the metaphysics,
ontology, and is founder of the ACE Folklife Historical Society and Ascension
Center.org.
TJ is also a natural born leader as a Capricorn with
Aquarius rising and promotes expos, seminars, and her friends and their
business interests. TJ attracts others who desire to share similar interests in
social networks and is a social entrepreneur. TJ writes about what interests
her including her friends and their businesses. TJ loves people, places,
things, and having a near death experience learned the power of meditation and
prayer for all those who believe as she does in Ascension Vertical Lifestyles
for body-mind-spirit. TJ has been a Life Coach to those who request her
services as a mentor. TJ is a known planner organizer since she founded Psychic
Network in Hawaii 1990-1993 and has worked in seminars and expos in the USA.
ACE FOLKLIFE – ASCENSION AGE –
ASCENSION CENTER SPIRITUAL SCIENCE ENLIGHTENMENT & NEW
AGE BOOKS
Links should be related to the New Age and placed in
appropriate categories for 2012 as Ascension Age in all libraries, book stores,
publishing houses, etc. . Suitable links include:
Ancient Civilization & Mythology
Ascension
Spirit Guides
Paranormal
Events, Groups & Publications
Magick – Occult, Wicca, Witchcraft, etc.
New Age Music, Art & Crafts
Prediction – Astrology, Biorhythms, Tarot, Clairvoyance,
etc.
Psychics-Mediums-Channels
Mysticism
Spiritualism
Travel & Recreation – Retreats, Sacred Places, Tours,
Spiritual Journeys, etc.
New Age Communities, Blogs & Internet Services
Gifts, Paraphernalia, New Age shopping
UFOs, Extra-Terrestrials, Conspiracies
Holistic Health
Earth Energies, Environmentalism, Inner Earth, etc.
Yoga, Empowerment, Meditation, Tai Chi, etc.
Spiritual/New Age Philosophy, Wisdom and Teachings.
Sustainability – Terra Forming
Artificial Intelligence
Cosmos – Space
Quantum Physics
Universities, Libraries, etc.
Science
World Religions, Theosophy, Philosophy, Psychology
Medical Doctors and Practices
Ascension Age – Social Entrepreneurs & Social Networkers